There are two misconceptions about the materialistic
thought in India. Either they are mistakenly
believed or deliberately propagated.
The
first one is that materialistic ideas
were
imported from the West into India,
which
laid only spiritualistic heritage.
The second
one is that materialism essentially
means
and leads to enjoyment of life and
physical
pleasures. Nothing can be farther from
truth.
In fact, materialism is the basic concept
for atheism. It is as ancient as Indian
philosophy.
However, unfortunately, the teachings
of
the earliest thinkers who had rebelled
against
the Vedas and the concept of Gods and
creation
were lost, presumably destroyed out
of intolerance.
Still some tangible evidence is available
to indicate the existence of rebels
and their
ideas The existing schools of philosophy
referred to such earlier thinkers as
"heretics"
and "Nihilists". Those who
denied
the authority of the Vedas were dubbed
as
"heretics". Others who took
the
view that nothing really existed except
thought
and that reality was only a void were
described
as "Nihilists". Though fragmentary
the evidence available is, it could
be safely
and reasonably assumed that even in
very
early times, several thinkers challenged
the authority of the Vedas.
As happened in ancient Greece, so in
India
also the human intellect tried to probe
and
understand nature. It gave birth to
philosophy.
Since the attempt was to understand
and explain
natural phenomena, philosophical thought
was materialism. So philosophy in India
started
as materialism. It was called Swabhava
vada
(naturalism). The Vedas and early Upanishads
refer to Swabhava vada and its concepts.
The latter rejected the Gods of natural
religion.
and the dominance of the priests, which
were
the products of the Vedas: for them,
perception
could be the sole source of knowledge.
It
must be, however, clarified that the
references
to Swabhava vada and its doctrines
censured
the Vedas, and the early Upanishads
were
made only for the purpose of refuting
them.
It is ironical that while refutations
are
available, the doctrines which were
refuted
have disappeared. The cause for such
disappearance
can be easily deducted.
Many Darshanas attempts at explaining
nature
and its phenomena came into existence.
Lokayata
Darshana appears to be one of the earliest,
if not the earliest, philosophical
endeavour.
Its authorship was ascribed to the
great
sage Brihaspati. This "Lokayata",
also called "Charvaka" system
is
considered as the concerted materialist
philosophical
thought in ancient India. Krishna Mishra,
a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, states
the essence of Lokayata Darshana as
follows:
"In it only perceptual evidence
is authority.
The elements are earth, water, fire
and air.
Matter can think. There is no other
world.
Death is the end of all."
Coming to the two popular epics, Ramayana
relates the episode of "Jabali"
who questions faith and scriptural
laws.
Mahabharata ridicules atheists who
deny the
reality of soul. The Gita refers to
heretics
who deny the existence of God.
Indian materialism was a reaction to
Nihilism
which propounded the doctrine that
nothing
existed. In order to controvert the
concept
of Sunya (voidness), it was necessary
to
refer to and rely on the existence
of the
material world. Sage Kanaada's Vaisheshika
Darshana is frankly materialistic in
its
conception and exposition, according
to which
atoms are the cause of the world. Kapila's
Saankhya is materialistic in its exposition.
It relies on the material world to
establish
the reality of existence.
Some of the Upanishads refer to matter.
For
instance, in Svetasvatara Upanishad,
Agni
(fire) is assumed as "the one
unborn
and from which everything springs".
Buddhism arose in the sixth century
BC and
was very popular in India for nearly
a millenium.
The realist school of Buddhism defines
the
existence of a thing as its causal
efficiency.
The existence of an abstract principle
cannot
be proved. The "Sunya Vada"
or
the Nihilist school of Buddhism of
which
Acharya Nagariuna was the predominant
propounder
is deduced from realism. The world
is visualized
as a self-originating process. Buddhist
materialism
was very much akin to Vaisheshik atomism.
This positive materialistic content
of Buddhism
made it very popular in India for nearly
a thousand years. That shows that materialist
thought was very. much appreciated
in India
for several centuries.
Jainism, which was a contemporary movement
along with Buddhism, rejects the doctrine
of Brahman (God). It critically examined
the conceptions of absoluteness, unity
and
eternity, and concluded that the doctrine
of Brahman (God) was not acceptable.
It,
however, believed in soul, and contrary
to
orthodox belief, perceived it as a
constantly
Changing entity. The phenomenal world,
in
the view of Jainism, is permanent and
real
with a continuous change.
In this short paper only a brief account
of the history of materialist thought
in
ancient India has been attempted. Later,
as Jain and Buddhist movements declined
in
effectiveness, Sankarachaya came on
the scene
in the seventh century AD and advanced
his
"Advaita" school which was
a powerful
part of Vedanta movement. The middle
age
of history of India was a dark age
period
culturally as well. As it lost its
political
independence, it also became culturally
backward.
One of the consequences of this backwardness
was the decline and in several parts
eclipse
of materialistic thought.
Yet the fact remains that materialism
started
the process of the beginning and growth
of
philosophy in India. It was rich in
its variety
or speculation and doctrine. It illuminated
the Indian mind for nearly two thousand
years.
It was no less brilliant and no less
scientific
than the Greek (then the only Western)
philosophy
and materialism.
It is therefore essential to recognise
that
materialist thought is a valuable ancient
Indian heritage.
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