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Kwang-Myung KIM |
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Kwang-Myung Kim is Professor of Philosophy
at Soongsil University in Seoul, Korea.He
has published A Study of Kant's Critique
of Judgment (1992), co-authored Questions
and Reflections of Philosophy (1994).
His
new book, Interpretation of Life and
Its
Relation to Aesthetics, is forthcoming |
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Abstract Aesthetic emotions are reputed to
be irrational, but, aesthetic emotions
as
mental phenomena bear complex relations
to
rationality. Emotions give us knowledge
about
the world. The aesthetic consciousness
of
Korean is the internal roots of the
Korean's
mentality. The aesthetic consciousness
and
the mentality are inseparably related
to
each other. The aesthetic consciousness
as
the analogy of reason, in the context
of
A. G. Baumgarten plays a role to extend
the
logical world. Aesthetic rationality
is the
common sense or the communicative rationality
of it. For the argument of universality
we
discuss the problem of aesthetic rationality.
Since the modern aesthetics, the problem
of aesthetic rationality came on the
stage
of aesthetics.
Shamanism as the deep-rooted element of Korean
mentality is the most authentic cultural
legacy of Koreans. Buddhism, Confucianism,
Taoism, and other religious elements
influence
the unique nature of the Korean character
together with shamanism. They play
a decisive
role in determining the Korean mentality
or consciousness. For Koreans, nature
is
a mirror of the self and a world of
meditation
which gives life, restoring all things
to
their proper state. As a peculiar color
consciousness,
Korean monochrome is characterized
by vitality,
spontaneity and unconcern for technical
perfection.
Korean art also tends to be devoid
of an
artificial movement and this reflects
dislike
of disturbance, deformation and convention.
If we are to consider Korean contemporary
art from an international perspective,
we
must define what it means to be Korean,
i.
e. our cultural habits and artistic
elements
hidden in the artist's unconsciousness.
In
this age of multiculturalism, the new
interpretation
on tradition makes it possible to merge
the
Korean art with the world stage. The
extension
of aesthetic emotion through experimentation
shows us the change of aesthetic consciousness
as a new possibility of interpretation.
1. Aesthetic consciousness or emotion is
an undercurrent in art. Under aesthetic
rationality
we can understand the common sense
(Gemeinsinn)
or the communicability among different
emotions.
Generally speaking, emotions are reputed
to be irrational, but, at the same
time emotions
as mental phenomena bear complex relations
to rationality. Whether emotions themselves
are reasonable or not, emotions serve
as
explanations, or justifications for
other
acts and states. Further, emotions
give us
informations or knowledges about the
world1.
So we need to drive aesthetic consciousness
from the Korean art. At the same time,
for
the argument of universality we discuss
the
problem of aesthetic rationality. Since
the
modern aesthetics, the problem of aesthetic
rationality came on the stage of aesthetics.
In the course of discussion on the problem,
we realized Korean art has been virtually
overlooked, while many are acquainted
with
the Chinese and Japanese art. Koreans
acted
not only as catalytic agents for the
Chinese
and Japanese cultures, but also developed
its own aesthetic consciousness. Despite
the impact of Chinese culture, however,
Korean
art has always managed to maintain
a uniquely
Korean quality, i. d. a tranquil and
relaxed
attitude, quite distinct from the elaborate
and massive forms of China or the highly
delicate style of Japanese art. 2
First of all, we can raise the question,
what the aesthetic consciousness of
Korean
is, in other words, what the internal
roots
of the Korean people's mentality are.
Of
course, the aesthetic consciousness
and the
mentality are inseparably related to
each
other. Secondly, through the research
of
aesthetic consciousness, I will try
to find
the existence of aesthetic rationality.
Here,
under aesthetic rationality I understand
the analogy of reason, as in the context
of A. G. Baumgarten. Rationality pursues
the logic of the physical world and
the objectivity
of the appearances. Just with the help
of
the emotion or sensibility, rationality
can
extend the knowledge of the world and
the
possibility of communication between
the
world and the man. One concerns emotions
as objects of knowledge. Here emotions
play
role as the way of knowing their objects.
3
What is the deep-rooted element of Korean
mentality? Shamanism is the most authentic
cultural legacy of Koreans, but we
have forgotten
it in the course of acculturation,
especially
so-called westernization or modernization.
In Korean shamanism, the concept of
the boundary
between the outside world and the village
itself is much stronger than the world-centered
outlook. The symbol of wholeness found
in
Korean shamanism is expressed through
the
motif of harmony or the union of opposites,
a reflection of the relationship between
Yin(-) and Yang(+) as the cosmic dual
forces.
Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and
other
religious elements influence the unique
nature
of the Korean character together with
shamanism.
In fact, they play a decisive role
in determining
the Korean mentality or consciousness.
Throughout
history, Confucianism and Shamanism
have
been in conflict with each other. Confucianism
is based on intellectualist, aesthetic,
and
patriarchal values while Shamanism
tends
to construct a new order in the unconscious
through religious spontaneity, emotional
experience, maternal tolerance, and
a breakdown
of the existing society's ethical norms.
Confucianism was adopted as the official
norm during the 500-year reign of the
Choson
Kingdom (Yi-Dynasty), however; modern
Koreans
today continue to embrace this tradition,
maintaining Confucian human relations
sprinkled
with touches of Buddhist, Shamanistic,
Taoist.,
and even Christian beliefs. The unique
character
of each psyche is influenced by the
individual's
religion. However, because of its unique
nature as a primitive, incantatory
religion,
I believe Shamanism is still alive
in the
form of a compound, in the depths of
every
Korean's mentality. In recent years,
however,
we have seen an increase in the number
of
Koreans for whom Confucian elements
are relatively
weak compared to Shamanistic elements.
In
these cases, a number of uniquely Shamanistic
behavioral types appear in the form
of what
we could call 'Shamanistic human relations'.
Unlike the uniquely Shamanistic elements
linked to the ecstasy phenomenon, these
behaviors
seem to be the result of the influence
of
Korean history on Korean Shamanism.
Korean
Shamanism generally served as a mechanism
by which human resentment brought on
by the
cultural gap between Shamanism and
Confucianism
was relieved. In contemporary society,
Shamanistic
elements have moved beyond the Korean
practice
of an exorciser to play a role in everyday
human and social relations. 4
2. In Culture as in fine arts, tradition,
including shamanism, is not simply
a legacy
from the past. While associated with
the
past, tradition also acts as a vital
force
enriching life in the present and fertilizing
the cultural soil for future innovation.
Originality and universality are relative
elements that interact with each other
to
shape the character of a particular
culture.
Any cultural group is bound to collapse
if
it stubbornly persists in its originality
alone and rejects international university.
Now, the blind acceptance or rejection
of
tradition are both undesirable from
the viewpoint
of creativity, for only a true understanding
of tradition can bring healthy creative
activity.
Tradition should be replaced with transmission.
The Korean aesthetic sense was very
much
at work in the process of selective
acceptance
of foreign elements.
The national awareness as so-called, modern
consciousness surged during the 18th
century,
especially during the reigns of king
Yongjo
(r. 1724-76) and Chungjo (r. 1776-1800) and played a vital role in
society and culture in general during
the
late Choson period. Just as many scholars
of the time turned away from pedantic
Neo-Confucian
precepts in favor of the progressive
ideals
of « Practical Learning », painters
began
to base their work on the native scenes
and
life style of their country. New social
trends
brought forth a number of new artistic
trends,
which may be summarized as follows:
Chong
Son (1676-1759) and his followers adopted
and transformed the techniques of the
Chinese
Southern School for use in the painting
of
Korean landscapes. Kim Hong-do (1745-?),
Sin Yun-bok (mid-18c-early 19c) and
their
followers produced a large number of
genre
paintings depicting scenes of daily
life
with a sense of humor and affection,
and
Western Methods of painting were introduced
to Korea via Qing China. 5
We need an artistic climate that encourages
a thorough understanding of tradition
in
order to form the basis for the development
of new styles. Tradition is not an
obsolete
relic of the past, but it should be
transmission
as an organic thing that enriches the
present
and inspires the future. There has
been little
ground for a logical succession or
transformation
from modern to contemporary art in
Korean
art history, much less the establishment
of a distinctive school of art. For
Koreans,
nature is a mirror of the self and
a world
of meditation which gives life, restoring
all things to their proper state. It
is this
concept that gave rise to a unique
Korean
abstract art, the world of monochromatic
painting. As a peculiar color consciousness,
Korean monochrome is neither a product
of
'anti-colorism' nor the expression
of an
indifference in color. It is meant
to eliminate
the sensuous and physical properties
of color
and, thus may well be called 'pan-colorism'
rather than 'anti-colorism'. Like Oriental
brush and ink paintings which encompasses
the latent qualities of all colors,
this
world of monochrome represents spiritual
space. The relationship between Korean
monochromatic
painting and Korea's indigenous view
of nature
should be obvious. If nature means
'to be
exposed in its original state', it
can also
be construed as a return to the fountainhead.
Korean monochromatic painting's elimination
of all artificial illusory representations,
including color, is what makes it so
natural.
This elimination should not be confused
with
the 'art of elimination' found in the
minimalism
of Europe and America, which is an
artificial
product of rationalized thought. It
is this
difference in Korean monochromatic
painting
that has paved the way for Korea's
distinctively
'post-minimalist' art.
Naturalism is an attribute of Korean art
because of Koreans' indigenous view
of nature,
i. e. the view of holding communion
with
nature. However, the relativity in
this concept
of naturalism gives way to errors in
the
interpretation of the characteristics
of
Korean art. Not only is naturalism
a concept
brought from Western art and often
used as
a synonym for realism but, in the strict
sense, it is a version of modern realism.
In this regard, it would be more accurate
to say that Korean art, be it figurative
or abstract, is more or less anti-naturalist.
In fact, the concepts of figurative
and abstract
art do not exist in traditional Korean
art.
A distinguishing characteristic of Korean
art is not naturalist in the western
sense
of the term. The western meaning of
naturalism
is the science oriented term. And,
if the
tradition of Korean art is set against
the
background of a 'return to nature',
I think
a more appropriate term is 'pan-naturalism',
because the nature portrayed in Korean
art
is not a product of an objective world,
but
an expression of an omnipresent view
of nature
bespeaking both the consciousness of
human
beings and the source of life. This
pan-naturalism,
working in concert with post-naturalism,
makes it possible to call a work of
art genuinely
Korean. 6
Needless to say, to call something 'Korean'
brings up the question of Korea's unique
tradition. When it comes to contemporary
art, the question involves an almost
unavoidable
confrontation between tradition and
today.
This confrontation is directly linked
with
the problem of identity, a problem
which
has ramifications for society as a
whole.
The central problem lies in how Korean
tradition
can be restored and alive in today.
That
recollects the effective history of
H.-G.
Gadamer. « The true historical object
is
not an object at all, but the unity
of the
one and the other, a relationship in
which
exists both the reality of history
and the
reality of historical understanding.
»7 In
Korea, the problem involving tradition
is
presenting itself as a critical issue.
Contemporary
Korean art was saddled with an identity
crisis
from its outset. It behooves contemporary
painters, then, to undertake the urgent
process
of overcoming this identity crisis.
A more
important task would be the restoration
of
the very source that originated Korea's
indigenous
traditional style. It is the real connection
from the tradition to the transmission,
from
the past to the present.
Oriental calligraphy is more than an artistic
technique; it is part of a broader
philosophy,
Taoism, which forms the basis of much
of
East Asian philosophy. Empty space
is as
important as any other content. It
means
the Taoistic Wu-Wei. Koreans have been
conscious
of five colors: black, white, red,
blue and
yellow. 8 These colors are not perceived
purely by sense. Rather they are conceptual
colors that symbolize the Five Fundamental
Elements forming the diagram illustrating
the Taoist cosmos of eternal change.
The
five colors have lived within the hearts
of the East Asian people since ancient
times.
Just as seven was a magic number to
medieval
Europeans, five is a magic number to
the
people of East Asia; the key to solve
the
mysteries of the universe. Black, white,
red, blue and yellow are not simply
colors;
but are the basic principles of the
universe.
East Asian culture can be divided into
cultures
based on Zen Buddhism and Esoteric
Buddhism.
Zen culture tended to avoid the use
of color;
drawings from this culture were generally
in Chinese ink alone. On the other
hand,
cultures based on Esoteric Buddhism
made
active use of color. This was especially
true in folk art. Korean folk art is
closely
linked to a belief in the power of
incantations.
The iconography of traditional mandala
(symbolic
representations of cosmic forces central
to Esoteric Buddhism) is one example
of the
dizzying use of color and form typical
of
these cultures. Its use of color is
not meant
to simply stimulate the human senses;
it
is meant to evoke a certain religious
ecstasy
through hallucination. The colors found
in
these paintings do not exist in a broader
color harmony; rather they are bold
and rampant,
primitive and instinctual. Such paintings
could be called expressionist in their
use
of these primitive colors. For example,
in
P. Cezanne, color is the place where
our
mind joins the universe. 9
3. Ko Yu-seup, the renowned art historian,
once said Korean art was characterized
by
its 'lack of refinement' and 'nonchalance'.
He concluded that its lack of meticulous
detail enabled it to be embraced by
a wholeness
larger than art and hence emanate a
warm,
comforting ambience. Ko's view is a
simple
but eloquent description of the characteristics
of traditional Korean art. However,
it is
inadequate for clarifying the characteristics
of contemporary Korean art. This is
because
art is influenced by trends and cultural
changes. Today's art, for example,
is conditioned
to the existent social, cultural, historical
and religious contexts. It is very
difficult
to comprehend a work without understanding
the culture of which played an important
role in shaping the personality and
mental
attitude of the artist who created
it.
If we keep viewing Korean art through the
eyes of western aesthetician, we will
be
unable to see the shame that Korean
contemporary
art is nothing but a pathetic epigone
of
western art. Nevertheless, given the
scene
and sensibilities of Korean artists
and the
Korean public which is still dominated
by
the traditional thoughts of an agrarian
culture;
Korean aesthetics must be inherent
in contemporary
Korean art, regardless of its dominant
Western
influence. But we can here compare
and pay
attention to the problem of Korean
disinterestedness
or non- technique.
Korean contemporary art is caught between
tradition and imported culture, trapped
in
a cultural melee resulting from the
alternate
colliding and diverging of modern and
white
or black, it sought to highlight the
absoluteness
of the painting surface. Man defines
art
as what is expressive of his experience,
sensations and mental images, such
as painting,
literature, dancing and acting. The
basic
factor of art is the communication
of emotions
and, in this connection, aesthetician
Jerome
Stolnitz states that when an artist's
feeling
is transferred to a viewer or listener
it
becomes art. 10 Beauty is the expression
of a sensation based on a harmonized
unity
or unified harmony. Man's favorable
response
to harmony is rooted in his instinct
for
preservation of life. 11 Beauty is
a sensation
empirically developed through natural
phenomena
related to human life.
Broadly speaking, styles of naturalism and
idealism tend to alterate with each
other
throughout art history. In this context
we
can point out the naturalism of the
Paleolithic
Age, the idealism that prevailed between
the Neolithic Age and the Iron Age,
the naturalism
of the classical period, the idealism
of
the Middle Age, the naturalism of the
Renaissance
period, and the idealism of the 20th
century.
The repetition of these two basis styles
can be traced in Asia as well: the
naturalism
of the Sui and T'ang dynasties in China,
the idealism of the Arabic world, the
naturalism
of India, the idealism of Japan and
the naturalism
of Korea. An artist of naturalist style
adopts
and develops a naturalistic pattern
in shape,
composition and effect. His standard
of beauty
is based on nature. Therefore his style
becomes
realistic rather than abstract. Outstanding
examples of this style are Roman figure
sculptures,
sculptures of Sokkuram Grotto Temple
in Kyungju
city, and landscape painting of the
Northern
Sung Dynasty. Contrary to a naturalist,
an
artist of idealism perceives objects
with
his subjective feeling and materializes
images,
forms and compositions as he sees and
feels.
12
Anyone who has some knowledge of Asian art
can easily discern Korean art from
Japanese
or Chinese art. But it is not easy
to explain
the difference in concrete terms point
by
point. D. Seckel defines 'Koreanness'
or
typical characteristic of Korean art
by detecting
: 1) The decomposition of form complexes
into small elements like a mosaic work.
2)
Flat in volume and graphically linear
in
surface design. Nevertheless, the underlying
characteristics of Korean art are vitality,
spontaneity and unconcern for technical
perfection,
i. e. nonchalance. 13 Seckel finds
the first
tendency, namely the breaking up of
design
in a mosaic manner, in details of Punchong
(mishima) vessels and a lacquer box
whereas
he detects the second tendency in the
decoration
of bronze bells, citing a bell dating
from
the Koryo Kingdom (918-1392). In the
case
of the latter, the ornamentation tends
to
become line-drawing, compared with
the preceding
Shilla period in which bells were ornamented
with flying heavenly maidens and arabesque
patterns in relief with sculptural
effects.
The second characteristic of Korean
art noted
by Seckel is a tendency of depicting
a solid
object in a flat plane. But this is
a basic
approach in all Asian art. In Asian
art,
there is a tendency to avoid nudity
(nakedness).
An artist prefers a man's figure with
his
clothes on. Sometimes a dress is more
emphasized
than the body. The drapery of a Buddhist
image, for instances, cover the entire
body.
It generally falls in a soft line,
spread
out in elegant folds, creating a decorative
linear effect. 14 This linear tradition
never
died in the Buddhist sculpture of China
even
when nudity was rendered under an influence
of Indian sculpture during the so-called
Second Phase.
Korean art as a whole is characterized by
vitality, spontaneity and unconcern
for technical
perfection. This characterization of
Korean
art is valid, but remains still vague.
More
analytical studies from a new angle
are required
to support the theory. Yanagi Muneyoshi,
an enthusiastic Japanese connoisseur
of Korean
art, has most passionately insisted
on spontaneity
as the main characteristic of Korean
art.
In the book <Korea and her Art,
1922,
he observes that the beauty of Korean
pottery
is a beauty that antecedes a concept
of what
is beautiful or ugly. « The beauty
is not
made by man, but endowed by nature
», he
contends. « It is born as a result
of Korean
potters' complete trust in nature of
their
freedom from a worldly ambition for
human
perfection ». After all, this nonchalance
that Yanagi sees as a virtue seems
to accord
with what Seckel means by spontaneity.
Yanagi's
aesthetic concept of Korean art and
crafts
revealed in his book represents the
aesthetic
views of ancient Japanese tea masters
who
adopted crude looking Choson vessels
as their
finest tea bowls. This feeling is shared
not only by the Japanese, but by everybody
today. Ko Yu-Sop is basically of the
same
opinion, as he defines the characteristics
of Korean art as the qualities of 'technique
without technique', 'Planning without
planning',
'asymmetry', and 'nonchalance'. Here
we can
see also Kantian purposeness without
purpose,
lawfulness without law or conception
without
concept. « In most cases, a work of
Korean
art is probably not meticulous in minute
details. It rather tends to embrace
a wholeness,
hence its savory taste in total effect.
This
nonchalance lies in the docile state
of mind
of Korean artists and artisans who
love nature
as it is ».15
Another Japanese specialist in Korean Pottery,
Tanaka Toyotaro, states that Korean
ware
is rather born than made. « There is
no linking
of hesitation on the part of the potter,
»16 he adds. He also refers this point
of
view to spontaneity as an outstanding
trait
of Korean art. Evelyn McCune, an American
art historian born in Korea, asserts
that
refinement and crudeness are the two
polarizing
qualities existing in Korean art. Both
qualities
reveal honesty and contribute to strength,
or vitality. 17 Here the honesty is
purity,
a trust in nature. According to R.
Griffing,
Korean art is solid, straight-forward
and
modest and there is no sign of the
classicism
of Chinese intellects nor the technicality
of the Japanese. 18 These interpretations
by a number of scholars can actually
be summed
up in Seckel's terms-vitality, spontaneity
and unconcern for technical perfection.
Vitality
is a strength, resulting from the nonchalance
of a creator who is free from hesitation,
and free from the conflict between
the beautiful
and the ugly. The strength is even
enhanced
as he reduces decorations and makes
the best
of the virtue of his materials itself,
the
texture and natural grain, for example,
in
the case of wood. This tendency is
closely
related, in the end, to the second
and third
virtues that we have often discussed,
i.
e. spontaneity and unconcern for technical
perfection. Spontaneity is dual in
nature.
It involves an artist's attitude toward
his
work as well as his taste for a spontaneous
quality. This love of spontaneity,
for instance,
is reflected in the tendency of leaving
pottery
an undecorated object, eliciting a
delightful
feeling of expanded space leading to
the
lack of artificial pretense. Korean
art also
tends to be devoid of an artificial
movement
and this reflects dislike of disturbance,
deformation and convention.
The third and last virtue in question, unconcern
for technical perfection, is revealed
in
Korean artisans' use of warped pieces
of
wood as beams, pillars and brackets
in building
a house. It is also reflected in a
slightly
deformed, crudely glazed bowl. Ko Yu-Sop
claims that the savory taste of Korean
ware
comes from such qualities. G. M. Gompertz,
an English specialist and collector,
explains:
« The Korean potters were often careless
or inexpert in technique: they were
more
concerned in achieving an artistic
effect
and seldom paid attention to detail.
» After
all, this unconcern is closely related
to
spontaneity and docile adaptation to
natural
environments. It is not of fraudulent
nature.
There is honesty in it. An artisan
uses a
deformed piece of wood as a beam only
when
it can fully support the roof.
4. Korean art has been characterized by submission
to the nature, and the lack of the
artificial
consciousness. Thus it has developed
within
the framework of naturalism. Naturalism
as
such is a vague term. To make it more
precise,
we must consider the Korean's basic
philosophy
lies not in a man-oriented idealism
but in
a naturalism oriented by nature. Then
where
and how have such characteristic of
Korean
art been formed? They have certainly
come
from the national character motivated
by
the historical as well as natural environments.
The Koreans have lived in the mild,
natural
environment of a temperate region endowed
with four distinct seasons. This natural
condition led the northern nomadic
tribes
to become farmers as they settled in
the
Korean peninsula, which they made one
of
the three significant cultural areas
in the
Far East. The peninsular features mountains
occupying four fifths of the total
area.
The mountains, however, are of modest
height
and have round peaks that make landscapes
peaceful and the amiable. It is evident
that
such peaceful and beautiful natural
surroundings
nurtured love of nature in the minds
of Koreans.
Its special historical background seems to
have played a great part in the formation
of their national character, such as
acceptance
of reality, resignation, optimism,
trust
in nature, escapism, and dislike of
artificiality.
But this reasoning looks insufficient
to
support our discussions on the character
of Koreans and their art. A more satisfying
answer can be found in a careful, synthetic
consideration of various elements,
such as
topography, geography, history, cultural
environment, and life style, that constitute
a specific composite whole. The cultural
tradition of a people derives from
a composite
mode of life formed over a long period
in
a specific pattern of environment.
Characteristics
of a cultural tradition contribute
in turn
to the formation of a cultural tradition.
19
The artistic handicrafts made during the
Chosun Dynasty are of high cultural
value,
but the producers of these works belonged
to the lowest social class, and were
not
held in high esteem. This was one of
the
many factors-hindering development
of art
in the Chosun Dynasty. The lack of
appreciation
and inspiration from both within and
without
exposed in a way the very fundamental
aesthetic
feeling of the humble Chosun artisans.
But
it also slowly obliterated the long
tradition
of Korean art, and called for a rapid
deterioration
of traditional art as the Chosun Dynasty
itself was coming to an end in the
early
20th century.
In Buddhistic figural sculpture, the body,
arms and particularly the face, are
full
and gracefully modeled, and unbroken
lines
run from the head to the tip of the
toes.
The drapery folds are depicted in animated
realism, and the sensitive, human approach
is immaculately perfected by technical
excellence
with an overall effect and pattern,
definitely
Korean. This idealistic naturalism
has been
the basic undercurrent in Korean art
throughout
the ages. The culmination of Silla
sculpture
is witnessed by the sculptures of the
Sokkuram
cave-temple that date from the mid-8th
century.
The main Buddha within the stone-built
circular
domed structure is a colossal seated
Buddha
surrounded by relief-figures of Disciples.
The main Buddha, carved out of a single
block
of granite, is an imposing monument.
It is,
however, not awkward or stiff, and
there
is a feeling of warmth beneath the
cold stone
surface. The facial expression is a
perfect
combination of the spiritual Buddha
and the
historic man, creating an eternal peace
and
calmness. In every figure within the
artificial
cave, traditional Korean naturalism
and a
slight touch of conventionalism are
combined
to create a sensitive yet divinely
spiritual
religious statue.
The inlay technique of Koryo Ceramics must
have been inspired by the artisan mentality
and the lacquer inlay techniques, but
the
effect was a totally new one. Those
various
minor types were continuously produced
during
the period, and there also appeared
celadon
wares with designs outlined in gold
over
the glaze. In some cases, designs were
painted
in underglaze iron, that slip over
an iron
glaze to produce a metallic texture.
And
creating a distinctly Korean temper
in painting
was artist, Chong Son. He set his themes
with actual Korean landscapes and became
the pioneer of true Korean painting.
His
innovations are well illustrated in
his sketches
of the Diamond Mountains, which is
a challenge
to the followers of the Chinese schools.
The art of painting was limited to
the upper
society and because of their attachment
to
Confucianism and Chinese culture in
general,
establishment of an independent Korean
style
was difficult to achieve.
A Punchong ware of Chosun Ceramics is made
of clay with a considerable amount
of iron
contents. A slip of white clay is coated
on the entire surface before applying
the
final celadon glaze. The vessel is
then baked
in a reducing or neutral fire. Thus
the characteristic
of the Punchong ware lies in the application
of a white slip under a transparent
celadon
glaze that produces a refreshing taste
and
beauty unique to Chosun art. There
are six
varieties of Punchong ware according
to the
techniques of surface treatment. 1)
The white
slip is brushed over the vessel to
leave
the characteristic traces of a brush,
2)
The vessel is dipped into white slip,
3)
The designs are either stamped or carved
and filled with clay to produce the
effect
of inlay, 4) Designs are incised in
outlines
over the slipped, or the space between
outlines
is scraped off, 5) Designs are painted
in
underglaze iron over the white slip,
6) Designs
are scraped out in broad silhouette
to be
filled with white clay.
White porcelain became the main current of
Chosun ceramics from about the turn
of the
fifteenth century. Koreans by nature
are
fond of plain, subdued colors, and
white
clothes were the main type of dress
in ordinary
Chosun society. Thus the popularity
of white
porcelain in the Chosun dynasty period
should
be understood as an expression of natural
emotion. Chosun white jar, which is
the combination
of an imperfect sphere and the limitless
space of plain white, demonstrates
the naïve
beauty of Korean art its best. There
are
five categories in Chosun white porcelains
: 1) Plain white porcelains without
any decoration,
2) Those with outline-designs done
in black
inlay, 3) The blue-and- white, 4) Those
with
designs painted in underglaze copper,
5)
Those with designs painted in underglaze
iron. Among these types, the blue-and-white
was the most popular one among every
class
of the Chosun society. The type with
underglaze
iron was produced by private kilns
as cheap
substitutes for more expensive blue-and-white
ware. Vessels with underglaze copper
are
limited in quantity probably because
of the
scarcity of the mineral paint.
In relation to Buddhistic metal craft, the
most striking proof of the basic differences
between Korean bells and the bells
of China
and Japan may be found in the treatment
of
the surface decorations. While Chinese
bells
are decorated by vertical and horizontal
ornamental bands on the upper and lower
edges
of the bell. The complex handle of
a crouching
dragon and a vertical cylindrical tube
attached
to the crown of Korean bells cannot
be found
in temple bells of other countries.
The origin of the mask in Korea can not be
traced, as in the case of other societies,
back to primitive religious faith.
The mask
dance, which originated as a ritual
play
in the country, began to take the form
of
entertainment under the influence of
Chinese
mask dance play during the Three Kingdoms
period (1c-7c, A. D.). Since its beginning
in the Three Kingdoms period the mask-dance
play has developed diverse characteristic
according to each province. With the
aid
of various colors and designs the mask
dancers
could easily manage a number of expressive
gestures and expressions. As the masks
were
valued for the disguise and protection
they
afforded in the plays, they were often
employed
in rituals to drive away devils and
evil
spirits.
5. Nowadays, it seems the art community has
also been consumed by the wave of globalization
that is sweeping Korean society in
general.
Today we've come to discuss the role
of Korean
contemporary art within the context
of this
globalization trend. Today, culture
becomes
more diversified and commercialized.
I believe,
the contemporary states are obligated
to
provide support for culture and art.
Many
people refer to 'openness to universalization
or generality' as an important element
of
post-modernism, post-nationalism, pluralism,
multinationalism. One of our most urgent
problems is how to accommodate the
needs
of the world and of nationalism or
ethnicity.
We also must consider what contemporary
Korean
art is. Establishing that identity
is one
way of diagnosing Korean art.
Contemporary Korean art has always been struggling
with the question of the priority between
the socalled western modernity and
the regional
tradition. We see a worldwide tendency
toward
the exploration of the relationship
between
art and social realities. Korean artists
are still searching for their own unique
identity and struggling to respond
to trends
toward globalization while at the same
time
maintaining a sense of their own regional
tradition. Korea's contemporary art
movement
has been overly dependent on Western
ideas
and too uniform in approach.
Korean artists have rushed to embrace Western
artists trends and concepts, as well
as techniques,
and attempted to incorporate them into
their
own work. They tend to have a complex
about
Western art, which has in turn led
to the
debate over 'ethnicity' and 'universality'.
This debate was especially important
during
the 1980s and continues to fuel the
search
for our own unique national culture
and subject
in artistic representation. Contemporary
art as we know it today, came into
being
some time between 1910 and 1920 when
Korean
artists began to adopt Western art.
If we are to consider Korean contemporary
art from an international perspective,
we
must define what it means to be Korean,
i.
e. our cultural habits and artistic
elements
hidden in the artist's unconscious.
It's
the identity problem. In this era of
globalization,
the question of Korea's artistic identity
is attracting a lot of attention. While
many
point to the relevance of national
identity,
the question of the individual artist's
personal
identity also seems important. Korean
artists
must concern themselves with the specific
issues. Namely, they have to take a
broad
view toward the idea of the visual
media.
And they have to transcend the narrow
sensory,
conceptual, and formal significance
of painting
to discover its fundamental character.
They
must constantly review their own society,
and their own culture, for ultimately
their
art is rooted in their own national
cultural
sensibility. It's much more than a
question
of how we portray our Korean consciousness.
In the first half of the 1990's, Korean contemporary
art has seen a clear tendency toward
stylistic
pluralism and creative individualism.
While
experimentation in the new media is
encouraging,
experimentalism should be a means of
reacting
to the mainstream, not a means of destroying
it. In our modern world, the human
consciousness
is no longer dominated by a single
tradition
or ideology. The young artist's attempt
to
look at all aspects of life from an
individual
point of view is a valuable achievement
in
this age of fluidity. Beneath the individual
lives, identities, experiences depicted
by
these artists lie many more layers
of truth
to be revealed and redefined in the
future.
As in the case of western avant-garde, experimentation
makes our reality reflective. Experimental
methods make the art world free from
the
restrictions of tradition. Each method
strove
to break with traditional limitations,
although
there were many variations and degrees
of
experimentation. It is only the relic
of
the past to reject the stream of change.
Something new comes off not from the
separation
between the past and the present, but
from
the historical continuity. In this
age of
multiculturalism, the new interpretation
on tradition makes it possible to merge
the
Korean art with the world stage.
The extension of aesthetic emotion through
experimentation shows us the change
of aesthetic
consciousness as a new possibility
of interpretation.
Notes * Improved and revised Paper that was presented
at State University of New York / Buffalo,
Colloquium, Department of Philosophy,
October
22, 1996.
1. Ronald de Sousa, The Rationality of Emotion,
The MIT Press, 1990, p. 1.
2. Before the exhibition « 5000 Years of
Korean Art » in the United States from
1979
to 1981 and « Treasures from Korea
» in Europe
in the year of 1984, Korean art was
little
known to westerners. The late Sun-u
Choi,
director of the national Museum, once
metaphorically
said: « Chinese art is like an actress,
dramatic
and showy, Japanese art is like a geisha
girl, delicate and colorful, Korean
art is
like a wife and mother, earthy, warm
and
rarefied ».
3. Ronald de Sousa, op. cit., p. 9.
4. Bou-Yong Rhi, Shamanism and the Korean
Psyche, Koreana, vol. 6/No. 2. 1992.
p. 32-35.
5. Hwi-Joon Ahn, The Korean Painting Tradition,
in: Koreana, vol. 6/No. 2 1992. p.
11.
6. Yil Lee, History & Characteristics
of Contemporary Korean Art, in: Koreana-Korean
Art & Culture (ed. Korea Foundation),
vol 9, No. 2, Summer 1995. pp. 4-8
7. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method,
trans. by Garret Barden and John Cumming,
New York: The Crossroad, 1982, p. 267.
8. These colors, so evident in the brilliant
tanch'ong paintings found in palaces,
temples
and shrines, are conceptual, symbolizing
the Five Elements in the Taoistic natural
order of eternal change.
9. June-sang Yu, Light and Color in Koran
Art, in: Koreana, vol. 9/No. 2, 1995,
pp.
10-12.
10. Jerome Stolnitz, Aesthetics, MacMilan,
1965, p. 43.
11. Won-Yong Kim, The Beauty of Korean Art,
Seoul: Yolhwadang, 1978, pp. 7-9.
12. Won-Yong Kim, Philosophies and Styles
in Korean Art & Culture (ed. Korea
Foundation),
vol 1, No. 1, 1987, p. 26-27.
13. D. Seckel, « Some Characteristic of Koraen
Art », Oriental Art, Spring, 1997,
pp. 52-61.
14. W. Willetts, Chinese Art, Pelican Book,
1958, pp. 372-377.
15. Yu-Sop Ko, « Characteristic of Korean
art », in his Essays on History of
Korean
art and Aesthetics, Seoul: Tongmungwan,
1963,
p. 6-8.
16. Tanaka Toyataro, Yi Dynasty Ceramics,
Tokyo, 1944, pp. 257-8.
17. McCune, The arts of Korea, Tutle Co.,
1962, p. 20.
18. Asia House Gallery, The Art of the Korean
Potter, The Asia Society, 1968, p.
13.
19. Wong-Yong Kim, op. cit., p. 32. |
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