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What Buddhists Believe
IN SEVENTEEN WEB-PAGE PARTS WEB-PAGE FIVE
Chapter 5
BASIC DOCTRINES |
K.Sri Dhammananda
Venerable Dhammananda was born on March 18,
1919 to the family of Mr. K.A. Garmage in
the village of Kirinde, Matara in southern
Ceylon. Like most children born during the
British colonial period, he was given the
English name of Martin. He was the eldest
in a family of three brothers and three sisters
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Tri-Pitaka (or Tipitaka)
Tripitaka is the collection of the teachings
of the Buddha over 45 years in the Pali language,
and it consists of Sutta---conventionalteaching,
Vinaya ---disciplinary code, and Abhidhamma---moral
psychology.
The Tripitaka was compiled and arranged in
its present form by those Arahants who had
immediate contact with the Master Himself.
The Buddha has passed away, but the sublime
Dhamma which He unreservedly bequeathed to
humanity still exists in its pristine purity.
Although the Master has left no written records
of His Teachings, His distinguished disciples
preserved them by committing to memory and
transmitting them orally from generation
to generation.
Immediately after the final passing away
of the Buddha, 500 distinguished Arahants
held a convention known as the First Buddhist
Council to rehearse the Doctrine taught by
the Buddha. Venerable Ananda, the faithful
attendant of the Buddha who had the special
privilege of hearing all the discourses the
Buddha ever uttered, recited the Dhamma,
whilst the Venerable Upali recited the Vinaya,
the rules of conduct for the Sangha.
One hundred years after the First Buddhist
Council, during King Kalasoka, some disciples
saw the need to change certain minor rules.
The orthodox monk said that nothing should
be changed while the others insisted on modifying
some disciplinary rules(Vinaya). Finally,
the formation of different schools of Buddhism
germinated after this council. And in the
Second Council, only matters pertaining to
the Vinaya were discussed and no controversy
about the Dhamma was reported.
In the 3rd Century B. C. during the time
of Emperor Asoka, the Third Council was held
to discuss the differences of opinion held
by the Sangha community. At this Council
the differences were not confined to the
Vinaya but were also connected with the Dhamma.
At the end of this Council, the President
of the Council, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa,
compiled a book called Kathavatthu refuting
the heretical, false views and theories held
by some disciples. The teaching approved
and accepted by this Council was known as
Theravada. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was held
in Sri Lanka in 80 B. C. is known as the
4th Council under the patronage of the pious
King Vattagamini Abbaya. It was at this time
in Sri Lanka that the Tripitaka was first
committed to writing.
The Tripitaka consists of three sections
of the Buddha's Teachings. They are the Discipline(Vinaya
Pitaka), the Discourse(Sutta Pitaka), and
Ultimate Doctrine
(Abhidhamma Pitaka).
The Vinaya Pitaka mainly deals with the rules
and regulations of the Order of monks (Bhikkhus)
and nuns (Bhikkhunis). It describes in detail
the gradual development of the Sasana(Dispensation).
It also gives an account of the life and
ministry of the Buddha. Indirectly it reveals
some useful information about ancient history,
Indian customs, arts, sciences, etc.
For nearly twenty years since His Enlightenment,
the Buddha did not lay down rules for the
control of the Sangha. Later, as the occasion
arose, the Buddha promulgated rules for the
future discipline of the Sangha.
This Pitaka consists of the five following
books:---
Parajika Pali (Major Offences) Pacittiya
Pali (Minor Offences) Mahavagga Pali (Greater
Section) Cullavagga Pali (Smaller Section)
Parivara Pali (Epitome of the Vinaya)
Sutta Pitaka
The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of discourses
delivered by the Buddha Himself on various
occasions. There are also a few discourses
delivered by some of His distinguished disciples,
such as the Venerable Sariputta, Ananda,
Moggallana, etc., included in it. It is like
a book of prescriptions, as the sermons embodied
therein were expounded to suit the different
occasions and the temperaments of various
persons. There may be seemingly contradictory
statements, but they should not be misconstrued
as they were opportunely uttered by the Buddha
to suit a particular purpose.
This Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas
or collections, viz:--
Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses)
Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of Middle-length
Discourses) Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of
Kindred Sayings) Anguttara Nikaya (Collection
of Discourses arranged in accordance with
number) Khuddaka Nikaya(Smaller Collection)
The fifth is subdivided into fifteen books:---
Khuddaka Patha (Shorter Texts) Dhammapada
(The Way of Truth) Udana (Heartfelt sayings
or Paeons of Joy) Iti Vuttaka ('Thus said"
Discourses) Sutta Nipata (Collected Discourses)
Vimana Vatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)
Peta Vatthu (Stories of Petas) Theragatha
(Psalms of the Brethren) Therigatha (Psalms
of the Sisters) Jataka (Birth Stories) Niddesa
(Expositions) Patisambhida (Analytical Knowledge)
Apadana (Lives of Saints) Buddhavamsa (The
History of Buddha) Cariya Pitaka (Modes of
Conduct)
Abhidhamma Pitaka
The Abhidhamma is, to a deep thinker, the
most important and interesting, as it contains
the profound philosophy of the Buddha's teaching
in contrast to the illuminating but simpler
discourses in the Sutta Pitaka.
In the Sutta Pitaka one often finds references
to individual, being, etc., but in the Abhidhamma,
instead of such conventional terms, we meet
with ultimate terms, such as aggregates,
mind, matter, etc.
In the Sutta is found the Vohara Desana (Conventional
Teaching), whilst in the Abhidhamma is found
the Paramattha Desana (Ultimate Doctrine).
In the Abhidhamma everything is analysed
and explained in detail, and as such it is
called analytical doctrine (Vibhajja Vada).
Four ultimate things (Paramattha) are enumerated
in the Abhidhamma. They are Citta, (Consciousness),
Cetasika (Mental concomitants), Rupa (Matter)
andNibbana.
The so-called being is microscopically analysed
and its component parts are minutely described.
Finally the ultimate goal and the method
to achieve it is explained with all necessary
details.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is composed of the
following works:--
Dhamma-Sangani (Enumeration of Phenomena)
Vibhanga (The Book of the Treatises) Katha
Vatthu (Point of Controversy) Puggala Pannatti
(Description of Individuals) Dhatu Katha
(Discussion with reference to Elements) Yamaka
(The Book of Pairs) Patthana (The Book of
Relations) According to another classification,
mentioned by the Buddha Himself, the whole
Teachings is ninefold, namely ---1. Sutta,
2. Geyya, 3. Veyyakarama, 4. Gatha, 5. Udana,
6. Itivuttaka, 7. Jataka, 8. Abbhutadhamma,
9. Vedalla.
Sutta? These are the short, medium, and long
discourses expounded by the Buddha on various
occasions, such as Mangala Sutta(Discourse
on Blessings), Ratana Sutta
(The Jewel Discourse) Metta Sutta(Discourse
on Goodwill), etc. According to the Commentary
the whole Vinaya Pitaka is also included
in this division. Geyya _These are discourses
mixed with Gathas or verses, such as the
Sagathavagga of the Samyutta Nikaya. Veyyakarana
--- Lit. exposition. The whole Abhidhamma
Pitaka, discourses without verses, and everything
that is not included in the remaining eight
divisions belong to this class. Gatha ---
These include verses found in the Dhammapada
(Way of Truth), Theragatha (Psalms of the
Brethren). Therigatha (Psalms of the Sisters),
and those isolated verses which are not classed
amongst the Sutta. Udana _These are the 'Paeons
of Joy' found in the Udana, one of the divisions
of the Khuddaka Nikaya. Itivuttaka _ These
are the 112 discourses which commence with
the phrases _ 'Thus the Blessed One has Said'.
Itivuttaka is one of the fifteen books that
comprise the Khuddaka Nikaya. Jataka _ These
are the 547 birth-stories related by the
Buddha in connection with His previous births.
Abbhutadhamma _ These are the few discourses
that deal with wonderful and marvelous things,
as for example the Accariya-Abbhutadhamma
Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (No. 123). Vedalla
_ These are the pleasurable discourses, such
as Chulla Vedalla, Maha Vedalla (M. N. Nos
43,44), Samma Ditthi Sutta (M. N. No. 9),
etc. In some of these discourses, the answers
give to certain questions were put with a
feeling of joy.
What is Abhidhamma?
Abhidhamma is the analytical doctrine of
mental faculties and elements.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the profound
moral psychology and philosophy of the Buddha's
teaching, in contrast to the simpler discourses
in the Sutta Pitaka.
The knowledge gained from the sutta can certainly
help us in overcoming our difficulties, as
well as in developing our moral conduct and
training the mind. Having such knowledge
will enable one to lead a life which is peaceful,
respectable, harmless and noble. By listening
to the discourses, we develop understanding
of the Dhamma and can mould our daily lives
accordingly. The concepts behind certain
words and terms used in the Sutta Pitaka
are, however, subject to changes and should
be interpreted within the context of the
social environment prevailing at the Buddha's
time. The concepts used in the sutta are
like the conventional words and terms lay
people use to express scientific subjects.
While concepts in the sutta are to be understood
in the conventional sense, those used in
the Abhidhamma must be understood in the
ultimate sense. The concepts expressed in
the Abhidhamma are like the precise scientific
words and terms used by scientists to prevent
misinterpretations.
It is only in the Abhidhamma that explanations
are given on how and at which mental beats
a person can create good and bad karmicthoughts,
according to his desires and other mental
states. Clear explanations of the nature
of the different mental faculties and precise
analytical interpretations of the elements
can be found in this important collection
of discourses.
Understanding the Dhamma through the knowledge
gained from the sutta is like the knowledge
acquired from studying the prescripti0ons
for different types of sicknesses. Such knowledge
when applied can certainly help to cure certain
types of sicknesses. On the other hand, a
qualified physician, with his precise knowledge,
can diagnose a wider range of sicknesses
and discover their causes. This specialized
knowledge puts him in a better position to
prescribe more effective remedies. Similarly,
a person who has studied the Abhidhamma can
better understand the nature of the mind
and analyse the mental attitudes which cause
a human being to commit mistakes and develop
the will to avoid evil.
The Abhidhamma teaches that the egoistic
beliefs and other concepts such as 'I', "you",
'man' and 'the world', which we use in daily
conversation, do not adequately describe
the real nature of existence. The conventional
concepts do not reflect the fleeting nature
of pleasures, uncertainties, impermanence
of every component thing, and the conflict
among the elements and energies intrinsic
in all animate or inanimate things. The Abhidhamma
doctrine gives a clear exposition of the
ultimate nature of man and brings the analysis
of the human condition further than other
studies known to man.
The Abhidhamma deals with realities existing
in the ultimate sense, or paramattha dhamma
in Pali. There are four such realities:
Citta, mind or consciousness, defined as
'that which knows or experiences' an object.
Citta occurs as distinct momentary states
of consciousness. Cetasika, the mental factors
that arise and occur along with the citta.
Rupa, physical phenomenon or material form.
Nibbana, the unconditioned state of bliss
which is the final goal. Citta, the cetasika,
and rupa are conditioned realities. They
arise because of conditions sustaining them
cease to continue to do so. They are impermanent
states. Nibbana, on the other hand, is an
unconditioned reality. It does not arise
and, therefore, does not fall away. These
four realities can be experienced regardless
of the names we may choose to give them.
Other than these realities, everything _
be it within ourselves or without, whether
in the past, present or future, whether coarse
or subtle, low or lofty, far or near _ is
a concept and not an ultimate reality.
Citta, cetisaka(?), and Nibbana are also
called nama. Nibbana is an unconditioned
nama. The two conditioned nama, that is,
cita and cetasika, together with rupa (form),
make up psychophysical organisms, including
human beings. Both mind and matter, or nama-rupa,
are analysed in Abhidhamma as though under
a microscope. Events connected with the process
of birth and death are explained in detail.
The Abhidhamma clarifies intricate points
of the Dhamma and enables the arising of
an understanding of reality, thereby setting
forth in clear terms the Path of Emancipation.
The realization we gain from the Abhidhamma
with regard to our lives and the world is
not in a conventional sense, but absolute
reality.
The clear exposition of thought processes
in Abhidhamma cannot be found in any other
psychological treatise either in the east
or west. Consciousness is defined, while
thoughts are analysed and classified mainly
from an ethical standpoint. The composition
of each type of consciousness is set forth
in detail. The fact that consciousness flows
like a steam, a view propounded by psychologists
like William James, becomes extremely clear
to one who understands the Abhidhamma. In
addition, a student of Abhidhamma can fully
comprehend the Anatta (No-soul) doctrine,
which is important both from a philosophical
and ethical standpoint.
The Abhidhamma explains the process of rebirth
in various planes after the occurrence of
death without anything to pass from one life
to another. This explanation provides support
to the doctrine of Kamma and Rebirth. It
also gives a wealth of details about the
mind, as well as the units of mental and
material forces, properties of matter, sources
of matter, relationship of mind and matter.
In the Abhidhamattha Sangaha, a manual of
Abhidhamma, there is a brief exposition of
the 'Law of Dependent Origination",
followed by a descriptive account of the
Causal Relations which finds no parallel
in any other study of the human condition
anywhere else in the world. Because of its
analytics and profound expositions, the Abhidhamma
is not a subject of fleeting interest designed
for the superficial reader.
To what extent can we compare modern psychology
with the analysis provided in the Abhidhamma?
Modern psychology, limited as it is, comes
within the scope of Abhidhamma in so far
as it deals with the mind---with thoughts,
thought processes, and mental states. The
difference lies in the fact that Abhidhamma
does not accept the concept of a psyche or
a soul.
The analysis of the nature of the mind given
in the Abhidhamma is not available through
any other source.. Even modern psychologists
are very much in the dark with regards to
subjects like mental impulses or mental beats
(Javana Citta) as discussed in the Abhidhamma.
Dr. Graham Howe, an eminent Harley Street
psychologist, wrote in his book, the Invisible
Anatomy:
'In the course of their work many psychologists
have found, as the pioneer work of C. G.
Jung has shown, that we are near to [the]
Buddha. To read a little Buddhism is to realize
that the Buddhists knew two thousand five
hundred years ago far more about our modern
problems of psychology than they have yet
been given credit for. They studied these
problems long ago, and found the answers
too. We are now rediscovering the Ancient
Wisdom of the East.'
Some scholars assert that the Abhidhamma
is not the teaching of the Buddha, but it
grew out of the commentaries on the basic
teachings of the Buddha. These commentaries
are said to be the work of great scholar
monks. Tradition, however, attributes the
nucleus of the Abhidhamma to the Buddha Himself.
Commentators state that the Buddha, as a
mark of gratitude to His mother who was born
as a deva in a celestial plane, preached
the Abhidhamma to His mother together with
other devas continuously for three months.
The principal topics (matika) of the advanced
teaching, such as moral states (kusala dhamma)
and immoral states
(akusala dhamma), were then repeated by the
Buddha to Venerable Sariputta Thera, who
subsequently elaborated them and later compiled
them into six books.
From ancient times there were controversies
as to whether the Abhidhamma was really taught
by the Buddha. While this discussion may
be interesting for academic purposes, what
is important is for us to experience and
understand the realities described in the
Abhidhamma. One will realize for oneself
that such profound and consistently verifiable
truths can only emanate from a supremely
enlightened source _ from a Buddha. Much
of what is contained in theAbhidhamma is
also found in the Sutta Pitaka. Such a statement,
of course, cannot be supported by evidence.
According to the Theravada tradition, the
essence, fundamentals and framework of the
Abhidhamma are ascribed to the Buddha, although
the tabulations and classifications may have
been the work of later disciples. What is
important is the essence. It is this that
we would try to experience for ourselves.
The Buddha Himself clearly took this stand
of using the knowledge of the Abhidhamma
to clarify many existing psychological, metaphysical
and philosophical problems. Mere intellectual
quibbling about whether the Buddha taught
the Abhidhamma or not will not help us to
understand reality.
The question is also raised whether the Abhidhamma
is essential for Dhamma practice. The answer
to this will depend on the individual who
undertakes the practice. People vary in their
levels of understanding, their temperaments
and spiritual development. Ideally, all the
different spiritual faculties should be harmonized,
but some people are quite contented with
devotional practices based on faith, while
others are keen on developing penetrative
insight. The Abhidhamma is most useful to
those who want to understand the Dhamma in
greater depth and detail. It aids the development
of insight into the three characteristics
of existence? impermanence, unsatisfactoriness,
and non-self. It is useful not only for the
periods devoted to formal meditation, but
also during the rest of the day when we are
engaged in various mundane chores. We derive
great benefit from the study of the Abhidhamma
when we experience absolute reality. In addition,
a comprehensive knowledge of the Abhidhamma
is useful for those engaged in teaching and
explaining the Dhamma. In fact the real meaning
of the most important Buddhist terminologies
such as Dhamma, Kamma, Samsara, Sankhara,
Paticca Samuppada andNibbana cannot be understood
without a knowledge of Abhidhamma.
Mind and Matter(Nama-Rupa)
"What is mind? No matter. What is matter?
Never mind."
According to Buddhism, life is a combination
of mind (nama) and matter (rupa). Mind consists
of the combination of sensations, perceptions,
volitional activities and consciousness.
Matter consists of the combination of the
four elements of solidity, fluidity, motion
and heat.
Life is the co-existence of mind and matter.
Decay is the lack of co-ordination of mind
and matter. Death is the separation of mind
and matter. Rebirth is the recombination
of mind and matter. After the passing away
of the physical body (matter), the mental
forces (mind) recombine and assume a new
combination in a different material form
and condition another existence.
The relation of mind to matter is like the
relation of a battery to an engine of a motor
car. The battery helps to start the engine.
The engine helps to charge the battery. The
combination helps to run the motor car. In
the same manner, matter helps the mind to
function and the mind helps to set matter
in motion.
Buddhism teaches that life is not the property
of matter alone, and that the life-process
continues or flows as a result of cause and
effect. The mental and material elements
that compose sentient beings from amoebae
to elephant and also to man, existed previously
in other forms.
Although some people hold the view that life
originates in matter alone, the greatest
scientists have accepted that mind precedes
matter in order for life to originate. In
Buddhism, this concept is called 'relinking
consciousness'.
Each of us, in the ultimate sense, is mind
and matter, a compound of mental and material
phenomena, and nothing more. Apart from these
realities that go to form the nama-rupa compound,
there is no self, or soul. The mind part
of the compound is what experiences an object.
The matter part does not experience anything.
When the body is injured, it is not the body
that feels the pain, but the mental side.
When are hungry it is not the stomach that
feels the hunger but again the mind and its
factors, makes the body digest the food.
Thus neither the nama nor the rupa has any
efficient power of its own. One is dependent
on the other; one supports the other. Both
mind and matter arise because of conditions
and perish immediately, and this is happening
every moment of our lives. By studying and
experiencing these realities we will get
insight into:
(1)what we truly are; (2)what we find around
us; (3)how and why we react to what is within
and around us; and (4)what we should aspire
to reach as a spiritual goal.
To gain insight into the nature of the psycho-physical
life is to realize that life is an illusion,
a mirage or a bubble, a mere process of becoming
and dissolving, or arising and passing away.
Whatever exists, arises from causes and conditions.
Four Noble Truths
Why are we here? Why are we not happy with
our lives? What is the cause of our unsatisfactoriness?
How can we see the end of unsatisfactoriness
and experience eternal peace?
The Buddha's Teaching is based on the Four
Noble Truths. To realize these Truths is
to realize and penetrate into the true nature
of existence, including the full knowledge
of oneself. When we recognize that all phenomenal
things are transitory, are subject to suffering
and are void of any essential reality, we
will be convinced that true and enduring
happiness cannot be found in material possessions
and worldly achievement, that true happiness
must be sought only through mental purity
and the cultivation of wisdom.
The Four Noble Truths are a very important
aspect of the teaching of the Buddha. The
Buddha has said that it is because we fail
to understand the Four Noble Truths that
we have continued to go round in the cycle
of birth and death. In the very first sermons
of the Buddha, theDhammachakka Sutta, which
He gave to the five monks at the Deer park
in Sarnath was on the Four Noble Truths and
the Eightfold Path. What are the Four Noble
Truths? They are as follows:
The Noble Truth of Dukkha
The Noble Truth of the Cause of Dukkha
The Noble Truth of the End of Dukkha
The Noble Truth of the path leading to the
End of Dukkha
There are many ways of understanding the
Pali word 'Dukkha'. It has generally been
translated as 'suffering' or 'unsatisfactoriness',
but this term as used in the Four Noble Truths
has a deeper and wider meaning. Dukkha contains
not only the ordinary meaning of suffering,
but also includes deeper ideas such as imperfection,
pain, impermanence, disharmony, discomfort,
irritation, or awareness of incompleteness
and insufficiency. By all means, Dukkha includes
physical and mental suffering: birth, decay,
disease, death, to be united with the unpleasant,
to be separated from the pleasant, not to
get what one desires. However, many people
do not realize that even during the moments
of joy and happiness, there is Dukkha because
these moments are all impermanent states
and will pass away when conditions change.
Therefore, the truth of Dukkha encompasses
the whole of existence, in our happiness
and sorrow, in every aspect of our lives.
As long as we live, we are very profoundly
subjected to this truth.
Some people may have the impression that
viewing life in terms of Dukkha is a rather
pessimistic way of looking at life. This
is not a pessimistic but a realistic way
of looking at life. If one is suffering from
a disease and refuses to recognize the fact
that one is ill, and as a result of which
refuses to seek for treatment, we will not
consider such a mental attitude as being
optimistic, but merely as being foolish.
Therefore, by being both optimistic or pessimistic,
one does not really understand the nature
of life, and is therefore unable to tackle
life's problems in the right perspective.
The Four Noble Truths begin with the recognition
of Dukkha and then proceed to analyse its
cause and find its cure. Had the Buddha stopped
at the Truth of Dukkha, then one may say
Buddhism has identified the problem but has
not given the cure; if such is the case,
then the human situation is hopeless. However,
not only is the Truth of Dukkha recognized,
the Buddha proceeded to analyze its cause
and the way to cure it. How can Buddhism
be considered to be pessimistic if the cure
to the problem is known? In fact, it is a
teaching which is filled with hope.
In addition, even though Dukkha is a noble
truth, it does not mean that there is no
happiness, enjoyment and pleasure in life.
There is, and the Buddha has taught various
methods with which we can gain more happiness
in our daily life. However, in the final
analysis, the fact remains that the pleasure
or happiness which we experience in life
is impermanent. We may enjoy a happy situation,
or the good company of someone we love, or
we enjoy youth and health. Sooner or later,
when these states change we experience suffering.
Therefore, while there is every reason to
feel glad when one experiences happiness,
one should not cling to these happy states
or be side-tracked and forget about working
one's way to complete Liberation.
If we wish to cure ourselves from suffering,
we must first identify its cause. According
to the Buddha, craving or desire (tanha or
raga) is the cause of suffering. This is
the Second Noble Truth. People crave for
pleasant experiences, crave for material
things, crave for eternal life, and when
disappointed, crave for eternal death. They
are not only attached to sensual pleasures,
wealth and power, but also to ideas, views,
opinions, concepts, beliefs. And craving
is linked to ignorance, that is, not seeing
things as they really are, or failing to
understand the reality of experience and
life. Under the delusion of Self and not
realizing Anatta (non-Self), a person clings
to things which are impermanent, changeable,
perishable. The failure to satisfy one's
desires through these things causes disappointments
and suffering.
The Danger of Selfish Desire
Craving is a fire which burns in all beings:
every activity is motivated by desire. They
range from the simple physical desire of
animals to the complex and often artificially
stimulated desires of the civilized man.
To satisfy desire, animals prey upon one
another, and human beings fight, kill, cheat,
lie and perform various forms of unwholesome
deeds. Craving is a powerful mental force
present in all forms of life, and is the
chief cause of the ills in life. It is this
craving that leads to repeated births in
the cycle of existence.
Once we have realized the cause of suffering,
we are in the position to put an end to suffering.
So, how do we put an end to suffering? Eliminate
it at its root by the removal of craving
in the mind. This is the Third Noble Truth.
The state where craving ceases is known as
Nibbana. The word Nibbana is composed of
'ni' and 'vana', meaning the departure from
or end of craving. This is a state which
is free from suffering and rounds of rebirth.
This is a state which is not subjected to
the laws of birth, decay and death. This
state is so sublime that no human language
can express it. Nibbana is Unborn, Unoriginated,
Uncreated, Unformed. If there were not this
Unborn, this Unoriginated, this Uncreated,
this Unformed, then escape from the conditioned
world is not possible.
Nibbana is beyond logic and reasoning. We
may engage in highly speculative discussions
regarding Nibbana or ultimate reality, but
this is not the way to really understand
it. To understand and realize the truth of
Nibbana, it is necessary for us to walk the
Eightfold Path, and to train and purify ourselves
with diligence and patience. Through spiritual
development and maturity, we will be able
to realize the Third Noble Truth.
The Noble Eightfold Path is the Fourth Noble
Truth which leads to Nibbana. It is a way
of life consisting of eight factors. By walking
on this Path, it will be possible for us
to see an end to suffering. Because Buddhism
is a logical and consistent teaching embracing
every aspect of life, this noble Path also
serves as the finest possible code for leading
a happy life. Its practice brings benefits
to oneself and other, and it is not a Path
to be practised by those who call themselves
Buddhists alone, but by each and every understanding
person, irrespective of his religious beliefs.
The Noble Eightfold Path? The Middle Way
This is the Path for leading a religious
life without going to extremes.
An outstanding aspect of the Buddha's Teaching
is the adoption of the Eightfold Path is
the Middle Path. The Buddha advised His followers
to follow this Path so as to avoid the extremes
of sensual pleasures and self-mortification.
The Middle Path is a righteous way of life
which does not advocate the acceptance of
decrees given by someone outside oneself.
A person practises the Middle Path, the guide
for moral conduct, not out of fear of nay
supernatural agency, but out of the intrinsic
value in following such an action. He chooses
this self-imposed discipline for a definite
end in view: self-purification.
The Middle Path is a planned course of inward
culture and progress. A person can make real
progress in righteousness and insight by
following this Path, and not by engaging
in external worship and prayers. According
to the Buddha, anyone who lives in accordance
with the Dhamma will be guided and protected
by that very Law. When a person lives according
to Dhamma, he will also be living in harmony
with the universal law.
Every Buddhist is encouraged to mould his
life according to the Noble Eightfold Path
as taught by the Buddha. He who adjusts his
life according to this noble way of living
will be free from miseries and calamities
both in this life-time and hereafter. He
will also be able to develop his mind by
restraining from evil and observing morality.
The Eightfold Path can be compared to a road
map. Just as a traveler will need a map to
lead him to his destination, we all need
the Eightfold Path which shows us how to
attain Nibbana, the final goal of human life.
To attain the final goal, there are three
aspects of the Eightfold path to be developed
by the devotee. He has to develop Sila(Morality),
Samadhi(Mental Culture) and Panna (Wisdom).
While the three must be developed simultaneously,
the intensity with which any one area is
to be practised varies according to a person's
own spiritual development. A devotee must
first develop his morality, that is, his
actions should bring good to other living
beings. He does this by faithfully adhering
to the precepts of abstaining from killing,
slandering, stealing, becoming intoxicated
or being lustful. As he develops his morality,
his mind will become more easily controlled,
enabling him to develop his powers of concentration.
Finally, with the development of concentration,
wisdom will arise.
Gradual Development
With His infinite wisdom, the Buddha knew
that not all humans have the same ability
to reach spiritual maturity at once. So He
expounded the Noble Eightfold Path for the
gradual development of the spiritual way
of life in a practical way. He knew that
not all people can become perfect in one
lifetime. He said that Sila, Samadhi, and
Panna, must and can be developed over many
lifetimes with diligent effort. This path
finally leads to the attainment of ultimate
peace where there is no more unsatisfactoriness.
Righteous Life
The Eightfold path consists of the following
eight factors:
Right Speech Sila Right Action Morality Right
Livelihood Right Effort Samadhi Right Mindfulness
Mental culture Right Concentration Right
Understanding Panna Right Thoughts Wisdom
What is Right Understanding? It is explained
as having the knowledge of the Four Noble
Truths. In other words, it is the understanding
of things as they really are. Right Understanding
also means that one understands the nature
of what are wholesome kamma(merits) and unwholesome
kamma(demerits), and how they may be performed
with the body, speech and mind. By understanding
kamma, a person will learn to avoid evil
and do good, thereby creating favorable outcomes
in his life. When a person has Right Understanding,
he also understands the Three Characteristics
of Life (that all compounded things are transient,
subject to suffering, and without a Self)
and understands the Law of Dependent Origination.
A person with complete Right Understanding
is one who is free from ignorance, and by
the nature of that enlightenment removes
the roots of evil from his mind and becomes
liberated. A lofty aim of a practising Buddhist
is to cultivate Wisdom and gain Right Understanding
about himself, life and all phenomena.
When a person has Right Understanding, he
or she develops Right Thought as well. This
factor is sometimes known as'Right Resolution',
'Right Aspirations" and 'Right Ideas'.
It refers to the mental state which eliminates
wrong ideas or notions and promotes the other
moral factors to be directed to Nibbana.
This factor serves a double purpose of eliminating
evil thoughts and developing pure thoughts.
Right Thought is important because it is
one's thoughts which either purify or defile
a person.
There are three aspects to Right Thought.
First, a person should maintaining an attitude
of detachment from worldly pleasures rather
than being selfishly attached to them. He
should be selfless in his thoughts and think
of the welfare of others. Second, he should
maintain loving-kindness, goodwill and benevolence
in his mind, which is opposed to hatred,
ill-will or aversion. Third, he should act
with thoughts of harmlessness or compassion
to all beings, which is opposed to cruelty
and lack of consideration for others. As
a person progresses along the spiritual path,
his thoughts will become increasingly benevolent,
harmless, selfless, and filled with love
and compassion.
Right Understanding and Right Thought, which
are Wisdom factors, will lead to good, moral
conduct. There are three factors under moral
conduct: Right Speech, Right Action and Right
Livelihood. Right Speech involves respect
for truth and respect for the welfare for
others. It means to avoid lying, to avoid
backbiting or slander, to avoid harsh speech,
and to avoid idle talk. We have often underestimated
the power of speech and tend to use little
control over our speech faculty. But we have
all been hurt by someone's words at some
time of our life, and similarly we have been
encouraged by the words of another. It is
said that a harsh word can wound more deeply
than weapons, where as a gentle word can
change the heart and mind of the most hardened
criminal. So to develop a harmonious society,
we should cultivate and use our speech positively.
We speak words which are truthful, bring
harmony, kind and meaningful. The Buddha
once said 'pleasant speech is sweet as honey,
truthful speech is beautiful like a flower,
and wrong speech is unwholesome like filth'.
The next factor under good, moral conduct
is Right Action. Right Action entails respect
for life, respect for property, and respect
for personal relationships. It corresponds
to the first three of the Five Precepts to
be practised by every Buddhist, that is,
dear to all, and all tremble at punishment,
all fear death and value life. Hence, we
should abstain from taking a life which we
ourselves cannot give and we should not harm
other sentient beings. Respect for property
means that we should not take what is not
given, by stealing, cheating, or force. Respect
for personal relationship means that we should
not commit adultery and avoid sexual misconducts,
which is important for maintaining the love
and trust of those we love as well as making
our society a better place to live in.
Right Livelihood is a factor under moral
conduct which refers to how we earn our living
in society. It is an extension of the two
other factors of Right Speech and Right Action
which refer to the respect for truth, life,
property and personal relationships.
Right Livelihood means that we should earn
a living without violating these principles
of a moral conduct. Buddhists are discouraged
from being engaged in the following five
kinds of livelihood: trading in human beings,
trading in weapons, trading in flesh, trading
in intoxicating drinks and drugs, and trading
in poison. Some people may say that they
have to do such a business for their living
and, therefore, it is not wrong for them
to do so. But this argument is entirely baseless.
If it were valid, then thieves, murderers,
gangsters, thugs, smugglers and swindlers
can also just as easily say that they are
also doing such unrighteous acts only for
their living and, therefore, there is nothing
wrong with their way of life.
Some people believe that fishing and hunting
animals for pleasure and slaughtering animals
for food are not against the Buddhist precepts.
This is another misconception that arises
owing to a lack of knowledge in Dhamma. All
these are not decent actions and bring suffering
to other beings. But in all these actions,
the one who is harmed most of all is the
one who performs these unwholesome actions.
Maintaining a life through wrong means is
not in accordance with the Buddha's teaching.
The Buddha once said, 'Though one should
live a hundred years immorally and unrestrained,
yet it would indeed be better to live one
day virtuously and meditatively.' (Dhammapada
103) It is better to die as a cultured and
respected person than to live as a wicked
person.
The remaining three factors of the Noble
Eightfold Path are factors for the development
of wisdom through the purification of the
mind. They are Right Effort, Right Mindfulness,
and Right Concentration. These factors, when
practised, enable a person to strengthen
and gain control over the mind, thereby ensuring
that his actions will continue to be good
and that his mind is being prepared to realize
the Truth, which will open the door to Freedom,
to Enlightenment.
Right Effort means that we cultivate a positive
attitude and have enthusiasm in the things
we do, whether in our career, in our study,
or in our practice of the Dhamma. With such
a sustained enthusiasm and cheerful determination,
we can succeed in the things we do. There
are four aspects of Right Effort, two of
which refer to evil and the other two to
good. First, is the effort to reject evil
that has already arisen; and second, the
effort to prevent the arising of evil. Third,
is the effort to develop unarisen good, and
fourth, the effort to maintain the good which
has arisen. By applying Right Effort in our
lives, we can reduce and eventually eliminate
the number of unwholesome mental states and
increase and firmly establish wholesome thoughts
as a natural part of our mind.
Right Effort is closely associated with Right
Mindfulness. The practice of mindfulness
is important in Buddhism. The Buddha said
that mindfulness is the one way to achieve
the end of suffering. Mindfulness can be
developed by being constantly aware of four
particular aspects. These are the application
of mindfulness with regard to the body
(body postures, breathing so forth), feelings
(whether pleasant, unpleasant or neutrally);
mind(whether the mind is greedy or not, angry,
dispersed or deluded or not); and mind objects
(whether there are mental hindrances to concentration,
the Four Noble Truths, and so on). Mindfulness
is essential even in our daily life in which
we act in full awareness of our actions,
feelings and thoughts as well as that of
our environment. The mind should always be
clear and attentive rather than distracted
and clouded.
Whereas Right Mindfulness is directing our
attention to our body, feelings, mind, or
mental object or being sensitive to others,
in other words, putting our attention to
where we choose to, Right Concentration is
the sustained application of that attention
on the object without the mind being distracted.
Concentration is the practice of developing
one-pointedness of the mind on one single
object, either physical or mental. The mind
is totally absorbed in the object without
distractions, wavering, anxiety or drowsiness.
Through practice under an experienced teacher,
Right Concentration brings two benefits.
Firstly, it leads to mental and physical
well-being, comfort, joy, calm, tranquillity.
Secondly, it turns the mind into an instrument
capable of seeing things as they truly are,
and prepares the mind to attain wisdom.
The Noble Eightfold Path is the fourth important
truth taught by the Buddha. As a competent
spiritual physician, the Buddha has identified
a disease that afflicts all forms of life,
and this is Dukkha or unsatisfactoriness.
He then diagnosed the cause of the unsatisfactoriness
to be selfish greed and craving. He discovered
that there is a cure for the disease, Nibbana,
the state where all unsatisfactoriness ceases.
And the prescription is the Noble Eightfold
Path. When a competent doctor treats a patient
for a serious illness, his prescription is
not only for physical treatment, but it is
also psychological. The Noble Eightfold path,
the path leading to the end of suffering,
is an integrated therapy designed to cure
the disease of Samsara through the cultivation
of moral speech and action, the development
of the mind, and the complete transformation
of one's level of understanding and quality
of thought. It shows the way to gain spiritual
maturity and be released completely from
suffering.
Everything is Changeable
What exists is changeable and what is not
changeable does not exist.
Looking at life, we notice how it changes
and how it continually moves between extremes
and contrasts. We notice rise and fall, success
and failure, loss and gain; we experience
honor and contempt, praise and blame; and
we feel how our hearts respond to all that
happiness and sorrow, delight and despair,
disappointment and satisfaction, fear and
hope. These mighty waves of emotion carry
us up, fling us down, and no sooner we find
some rest, then we are carried by the power
of a new wave again. How can we expect a
footing on the crest of the waves? Where
shall we erect the building of our life in
the midst of this ever-restless ocean of
existence?
This is a world where any little joy that
is allotted to beings is secured only after
many disappointments, failures and defeats.
This is a world where scanty joy grows amidst
sickness, desperation and death. This is
a world where beings who a short while ago
were connected with us by sympathetic joy
are at the next moment in want of our compassion.
Such a world as this needs equanimity. This
is the nature of the world where we live
with our intimate friends and the next day
they become our enemies to harm us.
The Buddha described the world as an unending
flux of becoming. All is changeable, continuous
transformation, ceaseless mutation, and a
moving stream. Everything exists from moment
to moment. Everything is a recurring rotation
of coming into being and then passing out
of existence. Everything is moving from birth
to death. The matter or material forms in
which life does or does not express itself,
are also a continuous movement or change
towards decay. This teaching of the impermanent
nature of everything is one of the main pivots
of Buddhism. Nothing on earth partakes of
the character of absolute reality. That there
will be no death of what is born is impossible.
Whatever is subject to origination is subject
also to destruction. Change is the very constituent
of reality.
In accepting the law of impermanence or change,
the Buddha denies the existence of eternal
substance. Matter and spirit are false abstractions
that, in reality, are only changing factors
(Dhamma) which are connected and which arise
in functional dependence on each other.
Today, scientists have accepted the law of
change that was discovered by the Buddha.
Scientists postulate that there is nothing
substantial, solid and tangible in the world.
Everything is a vortex of energy, never remaining
the same for two consecutive moments. The
whole wide world is caught up in this whirl
and vortex of change. One of the theories
postulated by scientists is the prospect
of the ultimate coldness following upon the
death or destruction of the sun. Buddhists
are not dismayed by this prospect. The Buddha
taught that universes or world cycles arise
and pass away in endless succession, just
as the lives of individuals do. Our world
will most certainly come to an end. It has
happened before with previous worlds and
it will happen again.
'The world is a passing phenomenon. We all
belong to the world of time. Every written
word, every carved stone, every painted picture,
the structure of civilization, every generation
of man, vanishes away like the leaves and
flowers of forgotten summers. What exists
is changeable and what is not changeable
does not exist.'
Thus all gods and human beings and animals
and material forms? everything in this universe?
is subject to the law of impermanence. Buddhism
teaches us:
'The body like a lump of foam;
The feelings like a water bubble;
Perception like a mirage;
Volitional activities like a plantain tree;
And Consciousness like jugglery.'(Samyutta
Nikaya)
What is Kamma?
Kamma is an impersonal, natural law that
operates in accordance with our actions.
It is a law in itself and does not have any
lawgiver. Kamma operates in its own field
without the intervention of an external,
independent, ruling agent.
Kamma or karma can be put in the simple language
of the child: do good and good will come
to you, now, and hereafter. Do bad and bad
will come to you, now, and hereafter.
In the language of the harvest, kamma can
be explained in this way: if you sow good
seeds, you will reap a good harvest. If you
sow bad seeds, you will reap a bad harvest.
In the language of science, kamma is called
the law of cause and effect: every cause
has an effect. Another name for this is the
law of moral causation. Moral causation works
in the moral realm just as the physical law
of action and reaction works in the physical
realm.
In the Dhammapada, kamma is explained in
this manner: the mind is the chief (forerunner)
of all good and bad states. If you speak
or act with a good or bad mind, then happiness
or unhappiness follows you just as the wheel
follows the hoof of the ox or like your shadow
which never leaves you.
Kamma is simply action. Within animate organisms
there is a power or force which is given
different names such as instinctive tendencies,
consciousness, etc. This innate propensity
forces every conscious being to move. He
moves mentally or physically. His motion
is action. The repetition of actions is habit
and habit becomes his character. In Buddhism,
this process is called kamma.
In its ultimate sense, kamma means both good
and bad, mental action or volition. 'Kamma
is volition,'says the Buddha. Thuskamma is
not an entity but a process, action, energy
and force. Some interpret this force as 'action-influence,'
It is our own doings reacting on ourselves.
The pain and happiness man experiences are
the result of his own deeds, words and thoughts
reacting on themselves. Our deeds, words
and thoughts produce our prosperity and failure,
our happiness and misery.
Kamma is an impersonal, natural law that
operates strictly in accordance with our
actions. It is law in itself and does not
have any lawgiver. Kamma operates in its
own field without the intervention of an
external, independent ruling agency. Since
there is no hidden agent directing or administering
rewards and punishments, Buddhists do not
rely on prayer to some supernatural forces
to influence karmic results. According to
the Buddha, kamma is neither predestination
nor some sort of determinism imposed on us
by some mysterious, unknown powers or forces
to which we must helplessly submit ourselves.
Buddhists believe that man will reap what
he has sown; we are the result of what we
were, and we will be the result of what we
are. In other words, man is not one who will
absolutely remain to be what he was, and
he will not continue to remain as what he
is. This simply means that kamma is not complete
determinism. The Buddha pointed out that
if everything is determined, then there would
be no free will and no moral or spiritual
life. We would merely be the slaves of our
past. On the other hand, if everything is
undetermined, then there can be no cultivation
of moral and spiritual growth. Therefore,
the Buddha accepted neither strict determinism
nor strict undeterminism.
Misconceptions regarding Kamma
The misinterpretation or irrational views
on kamma are stated in the Anguttara Nikaya
which suggests that the wise will investigate
and abandon the following views:
the belief that everything is a result of
acts in previous lives; the belief that all
is the result of creation by a Supreme Ruler;
and the belief that everything arises without
reason or cause. If a person becomes a murderer,
a thief, or an adulterer, and, if his actions
are due to past actions, or caused by creation
of a Supreme Ruler, or if that happened by
mere chance, then this person would not be
held responsible for his evil action.
Yet another misconception about kamma is
that it operates only for certain people
according to their faiths. But the fate of
a man in his next life does not in the least
depend on what particular religion he chooses.
Whatever may be his religion, man's fate
depends entirely on his deeds by body, speech
and thought. It does not matter what religious
label he himself holds, he is bound to be
happy world in his next life so long as he
does good deeds and leads an unblemished
life. He is bound to be born to lead a wretched
life if he commits evil and harbors wicked
thoughts in his mind. Therefore, Buddhists
do not proclaim that they are the only blessed
people who can go to heaven after their death.
Whatever the religion he professes, man's
kammic thought alone determines his own destiny
both in this life and in the next. The teaching
of kamma does not indicate a post-mortem
justice. The Buddha did not teach this law
of kamma to protect the rich and to comfort
the poor by promising illusory happiness
in an after life.
According to Buddhism kamma explains the
inequalities that exist among mankind. These
inequalities are due not only to heredity,
environment and nature but also to kamma
or the results of our own actions. Indeed
kamma is one of the factors which are responsible
for the success and the failure of our life.
Since kamma is an invisible force, we cannot
see it working with our physical eyes. To
understand how kamma works, we can compare
it to seeds: the results of kamma are stored
in the subconscious mind in the same way
as the leaves, flowers, fruits and trunk
of a tree are stored in its seed. Under favorable
conditions, the fruits of kamma will be produced
just as with moisture and light, the leaves
and trunk of a tree will sprout from its
tiny seed.
The working of kamma can also be compared
to a bank account: a person who is virtuous,
charitable and benevolent in his present
life is like a person who is adding to his
good kamma. This accrued good kamma can be
used by him to ensure a trouble-free life.
But he must replace what he takes or else
one day his account will be exhausted and
he will be bankrupt. Then whom will he be
able to blame for his miserable state? He
can blame neither others nor fate. He alone
is responsible. Thus a good Buddhist cannot
be an escapist. He has to face life as it
is and not run away from it. The kammic force
cannot be controlled by inactivity. Vigorous
activity for good is indispensable for one's
own happiness. Escapism is the resort of
the weak, and an escapist cannot escape the
effects of the kammic law.
The Buddha says, 'There is no place to hide
in order to escape from kammic results.'
(Dhammapada 127).
Our Own Experience
To understand the law of kamma is to realize
that we ourselves are responsible for our
own happiness and our own misery. We are
the architects of our kamma. Buddhism explains
that man has every possibility to mould his
own kamma and thereby influence the direction
of his life. On the other hand, a man is
not a complete prisoner of his own actions;
he is not a slave of his kamma. Nor is man
a mere machine that automatically release
instinctive forces that enslave him. Nor
is man a mere product of nature. Man has
within himself the strength and the ability
to change his kamma. His mind is mightier
than his kamma and so the law of kamma can
be made to serve him. Man does not have to
give up his hope and effort in order to surrender
himself to his own kammic force. To off-set
the reaction of his bad kamma that he has
accumulated previously, he has to do more
meritorious deeds and to purify his mind
rather than by praying, worshipping, performing
rites or torturing his physical body in order
to overcome his kammic effects. Therefore,
man can overcome the effect of his evil deeds
if he acts wisely by leading noble life.
Man must use the material with which he is
endowed to promote his ideal. The cards in
the game of life are within us. We do not
select them. They are traced to our past
kamma; but we can call as we please, do what
suits us and as we play, we either gain or
lose.
Kamma is equated to the action of men. This
action also creates some karmic results.
But each and every action carried out without
any purposeful intention, cannot become a
Kusala-Kamma(skillful action) or Akusala-Kamma(unskillful
action). That is why the Buddha interprets
kamma as volitional activities. That means,
whatever good and bad deeds we commit ourselves
without any purposeful intention, are not
strong enough to be carried forward to our
next life. However, ignorance of the nature
of the good and bad effect of the kamma is
not an excuse to justify or avoid the karmic
results if they were committed intentionally.
A small child or an ignorant man may commit
many evil deeds. Since they commit such deeds
with intention to harm or injure, it is difficult
to say that they are free from the karmic
results. If that child touches a burning
iron-rod the heat element does not spare
the child without burning his fingers. The
karmic energy also works exactly in the same
manner. Karmic energy is unbiased, it is
like energy of gravity.
The radical transformations in the characters
of Angulimala and Asoka illustrate man's
potential to gain control over his kammic
force.
Angulimala was a highway robber who murdered
more than a thousand of his fellow men. Can
we judge him by his external actions? For
within his lifetime, he became an Arahanta
and thus redeemed his past misdeeds.
Asoka, the Indian Emperor, killed thousands
and thousands to fight his wars and to expand
his empire. Yet after winning the battle,
he completely reformed himself and changed
his career to such an extent that today,
'Amidst the tens of thousands of names of
monarchs that crowd the columns of history,
their majesties and royal highnesses and
the like, the name of Asoka shines and shines
almost alone, as a star,' says a well-known
world historian H. G. Well.
Other Factors Which Support Kamma
Although Buddhism says that man can eventually
control his karmic force, it does not state
that everything is due to kamma. Buddhism
does not ignore the role played by other
forces of nature. According to Buddhism there
are five orders or processes of natural laws(niyama)
which operate in the physical and mental
worlds:
seasonal laws(utu niyama) physical inorganic
order e. g., seasonal phenomena of winds
and rains, etc. the biological laws (bija
niyama) relating to seasonal changes etc.,
the kammic law (kamma niyama) relating to
moral causation or the order of act and result,
natural phenomena (Dhamma niyama) relating
to electrical forces, movement of tides etc.,
and psychological laws (citta niyama) which
govern the processes of consciousness. Thus
kamma is considered only as one of the five
natural laws that account for the diversity
in this world.
Can Kamma Be Changed?
Kamma is often influenced by circumstances:
beneficent and malevolent forces act to counter
and to support this self-operating law. These
other forces that either aid or hinder this
kamma are birth, time or conditions, appearances,
and effort.
A favorable birth (gati sampatti) or an unfavorable
birth (vipatti) can develop or hinder the
fruition of kamma. For instance, if a person
is born to a noble family or in a state of
happiness, his fortunate birth will provide
an easy opportunity for his good kamma to
operate. An unintelligent person who, by
some good kamma, is born in a royal family,
will, on account of his noble parentage be
honored by the people. If the same person
were to have a less fortunate birth, he would
not be similarly treated.
Good appearance (upadhi sampatti) and poor
appearance (upadhi vipatti)are two other
factors that hinder or favor the working
of kamma. If by some good kamma, a person
obtains a good birth, but is born deformed
by some bad kamma, then he will not be able
to fully enjoy the beneficial results of
his good kamma. Even a legitimate heir to
a throne may not perhaps be raised to that
high position if he happens to be physically
or mentally deformed. Beauty, on the other
hand, will be an asset to the possessor.
A good-looking son of poor parents may attract
the attention of others and may be able to
distinguish himself through their influence.
Also, we can find cases of people from poor,
obscure family backgrounds who rise to fame
and popularity as film actors or actresses
or beauty queens.
Time and occasion are other factors that
influence the working of kamma. In the time
of famine or during the time of war, all
people without exception are forced to suffer
the same fate. Here the unfavorable conditions
open up possibilities for evil kamma to operate.
The favorable conditions, on the other hand,
will prevent the operation of bad kamma.
Effort or intelligence is perhaps the most
important of all the factors that affect
the working of kamma. Without effort, both
worldly and spiritual progress is impossible.
If a person makes no effort to cure himself
of a disease or to save himself from his
difficulties, or to strive with diligence
for his progress, then his evil kamma will
find a suitable opportunity to produce its
due effects. However, if he endeavours to
surmount his difficulties, his good kamma
will come to help him. When shipwrecked in
a deep sea, the Bodhisattaduring one of his
previous births, made an effort to save himself
and his old mother, while the others prayed
to the gods and left their fate in the hands
of these gods. The result was that the Bodhisatta
escaped while the others were drowned.
Thus the working of kamma is aided or obstructed
by birth, beauty and ugliness, time and personal
effort or intelligence. However, man can
overcome immediate karmic effects by adopting
certain methods. Yet, he is not free from
such karmic effects if he remains within
this Samsara? cycle of birth and death. Whenever
opportunities arise the same karmic effects
that he overcame, can affect him again. This
is the uncertainty of worldly life. Even
the Buddha and Arahantas were affected by
certain kammas, although they were in their
final birth.
The time factor is another important aspect
of the karmic energy for people to experience
the good and bad effects. People experience
certain karmic effects only within this lifetime
while certain karmic effects become effective
immediately hereafter the next birth. And
certain other karmic effects follow the doers
as long as they remain in this wheel of existence
until they stop their rebirth after attaining
Nibbana. The main reason for this difference
is owing to mental impulsion (Javana Citta)
of the people at the time when a thought
arises in the mind to do good or bad.
Impartial Energy
Those who do not believe that there is an
energy known as kamma should understand that
this karmic energy is not a by-product of
any particular religion although Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism acknowledge and explain
the nature of this energy. This is an existing
universal law which has no religious label.
All those who violate this law, have to face
the consequences irrespective of their religious
beliefs, and those who live in accordance
with this law experience peace and happiness
in their life. Therefore, this karmic law
is unbiased to each and every person, whether
they believe it or not; whether, they have
a religion or not. It is like any other existing
universal law. Please remember that kamma
is not the exclusive property of Buddhism.
If we understand kamma as a force or a form
of energy, then we can discern no beginning.
To ask where is the beginning of kamma is
like asking where is the beginning of electricity.
Kamma like electricity does not begin. It
comes into being under certain conditions.
Conventionally we say that the origin of
kamma is volition but this is as much conventional
as saying that the origin of a river is a
mountain top.
Like the waves of the ocean that flow into
one another , one unit of consciousness flows
into another and this merging of one thought
consciousness into another is called the
working of karma. In short, every living
being, according to Buddhism, is an electricity
current of life that operates on the automatic
switch of kamma.
Kamma being a form of energy is not found
anywhere in this fleeting consciousness or
body. Just as mangoes are not stored anywhere
in the mango tree but, dependent on certain
conditions, they spring into being, so does
kamma. Kamma is like wind or fire. It is
not stored up anywhere in the Universe but
comes into being under certain conditions.
Rebirth
Unsatisfied desire for existence and sensual
pleasures is the cause of rebirth.
Buddhists regard the doctrine of rebirth
not as a mere theory but as a verifiable
fact. The belief in rebirth forms a fundamental
tenet of Buddhism. However, the belief in
rebirth is not confined to Buddhist; it is
also found in other countries, in other religions,
and even among free thinkers. Pythagoras
could remember his previous birth. Plato
could remember a number of his previous lives.
According to Plato, man can be reborn only
up to ten times. Plato also believed in the
possibility of rebirth in the animal kingdom.
Among the ancient people in Egypt and China,
a common belief was that only well-known
personalities like emperors and kings have
rebirths. A well-known Christian authority
named Origen, who lived in 185-254 A. D.,
believed in rebirth. According to him, there
is no eternal suffering in a hell. Gorana
Bruno, who lived in the sixteenth century,
believed that the soul of every man and animal
transmigrates from one being to another.
In 1788, a well-known philosopher, Kant,
criticized eternal punishment. Kant also
believed in the possibility of rebirth in
other celestial bodies. Schopenhauer(1788-1860),
another great philosopher, said that where
the will to live existed there must be of
necessity life. The will to live manifests
itself successively in ever new forms. The
Buddha explained this 'will to exist' as
the craving for existence.
It is possible but not very easy for us to
actually verify our past lives. The nature
of mind is such that it does not allow most
people the recollection of their previous
lives. Our minds are overpowered by the five
hindrances: sensual desire, ill-will, sloth,
restlessness and doubt. Because of these
hindrances, our vision is earth-bound and
hence we cannot visualize rebirths. Just
as a mirror does not reflect an image when
it is covered with dirt, so the mind does
not allow most people the recollection of
previous lives. We cannot see the stars during
daytime, not because they are not there in
the sky, but because they are outshone by
the sunlight. Similarly, we cannot remember
our past lives because our mind at present
is always over-burdened with many thoughts
in the present, day-to-day events and mundane
circumstances.
A consideration of the shortness of our life-span
on earth will help us to reflect on rebirth.
If we consider life and its ultimate meaning
and goal, and all the varied experience possible
for man, we must conclude that in a single
life there is not enough time for man to
carry out all that is intended by nature,
to say nothing about what man himself desires
to do. The scale of experience is enormous.
There is a vast range of powers latent in
man which we see and can even develop if
the opportunity is presented to us. This
especially true today if special investigation
is made. We find ourselves with high aspirations
but with no time to attain them. Meanwhile,
the great troop of passions and desires,
selfish motives and ambitions, make war within
us and with others. These forces pursue each
other to the time of our death. All these
forces must be tried, conquered, subdued
and used. One life is just not enough for
all this. To say that we must have but one
life here with such possibilities put before
us and impossible to develop is to make the
universe and life a huge and cruel joke.
The Buddha doctrine of rebirth should be
differentiated from the teachings of transmigration
and reincarnation of other religions. Buddhism
denies the existence of a permanent, god-created
soul or an unchanging entity that transmigrates
from one life to another.
Just as relative identity is made possible
by causal continuity without a Self or Soul,
so death can issue in rebirth without a transmigrating
Soul. In a single life, each thought-moment
flashes in and out of being, giving rise
to its successor with its perishing. Strictly
speaking, this momentary rise and fall of
every thought is a birth and death. Thus
even in a single life we undergo countless
births and deaths every second. But because
the mental process continues with the support
of a single physical body, we regard the
mind-body continuum as constituting a single
life.
What we ordinarily mean by death is the cessation
of the body's vital functions. When the physical
body loses its vitality it can no longer
support the current of consciousness, the
mental side of the process. But as long as
there is a clinging to life, a desire to
go on existing, the current of consciousness
does not come to a stop with the body's loss
of life. Rather, when death takes place,
when the body dies away, the mental current,
driven by the thirst for more existence,
will spring up again with the support of
a new physical body, one which has just come
into being through the meeting of sperm and
egg. Thus, rebirth takes place immediately
after death. The steam of memory may be interrupted
and the sense of identity transferred to
the new situation, but the entire accumulation
of experience and disposition has been transmitted
to the newborn being, and the cycle of becoming
begins to revolve for still another term.
For Buddhism, therefore, death does not spell
either the entrance to eternal life or complete
annihilation. It is, rather, the portal to
a new rebirth which will be followed by more
growth, decay, and then till another death.
At the last moment, no renewed physical functioning
occurs in a dying man's mind. This is just
like a motorist releasing the accelerator
before stopping, so that no more pulling
power is given to the engine. Similarly,
no more material qualities of Kamma arise.
Buddhists do not maintain that the present
life is the only life between two eternities
of misery and happiness; nor do they believe
angels will carry them to heaven and leave
them there for all eternity. They believe
that this present life is only one of the
indefinite numbers of states of being and
that this earthly life is but one episode
among many others. They believe that all
beings will be reborn somewhere for a limited
period of time as long as their good and
bad Kamma remains in the subconscious mind
in the form of mental energy. The interpretation
of the subconscious mind in the Buddhist
context should not be confused with that
given by modern psychologists since the concepts
are not exactly synonymous.
What is the cause of rebirth? The Buddha
taught that ignorance produces desires. Unsatisfied
desire is the cause of rebirth. When all
unsatisfied desire is extinguished, then
rebirth ceases. To stop rebirth is to extinguish
all desires. To extinguish desire, it is
necessary to destroy ignorance. When ignorance
is destroyed, the worthlessness of every
such rebirth, is perceived, as well as the
paramount need to adopt a course of life
by which the desire for such repeated births
can be abolished.
Ignorance also begets the illusive and illogical
idea that there is only one existence for
man, and the other illusion that this one
life is followed by states of eternal pleasure
or torment.
The Buddha taught that ignorance can be dispelled
and sorrow removed by realization of the
Four Noble Truths, and not through any other
source. To disperse all ignorance, one must
persevere in the practice of an all-embracing
altruism in conduct, intelligence and wisdom.
One must also destroy all desire for the
lower, personal pleasures and selfish desire.
How does rebirth take place? When this physical
body is no more capable of functioning, energies
do not die with it, but continue to take
some other shape or form, which we call another
life. The kammic force manifesting itself
in the form of a human being can also manifest
itself in the form of an animal. This can
happen if man has no chance to develop his
positive kammic forces. This force, called
craving, desire, volition, thirst to live,
does not end with the non-functioning of
the body but continues to manifest itself
in another form, producing re-existence which
is called rebirth.
Today, there are people in various countries
who have spontaneously developed memory of
their past births. The experiences of these
people have been well-documented in newspapers
and periodicals. Some of these people never
accepted that there was such a thing as rebirth
until memory fragments of their previous
lives came to them. Much of the information
they revealed about their past lives has
been investigated and found to be valid.
Through hypnotism, some people have managed
to reveal information of previous lives.
Certain hypnotic states that penetrate into
the subconscious mind make the recalling
of past lives possible.
Rebirth or becoming again and again is a
natural occurrence not created by any particular
religion or god. Belief in rebirth or disbelief
does not make any difference to the process
of rebirth or avoiding rebirth. Rebirth takes
place as long as craving for existence and
craving for sensual pleasures or attachment
exist in the mind. Those strong mental forces
prevail in each and every living being in
this universe. Those who hope and pray that
they be not born again must understand that
their wishes will not materialize until they
make earnest efforts to eradicate their craving
and attachment. Having seen and experienced
the uncertainty and unsatisfactoriness of
life under worldly conditions, wise people
try to rid themselves of these repeated births
and deaths by following the correct path.
Those who cannot reduce their craving and
attachment must be prepared to face all unsatisfactory
and uncertain situations associated with
rebirth and becoming again and again.
Is Rebirth Simultaneous?
Another difficult thing to understand about
rebirth is whether the occurrence of rebirth
is simultaneous or not. This is a controversial
issue even amongst prominent Buddhist Scholars.
According to Abhidhamma, rebirth (conception)
takes place immediately after the death of
a being without any intermediate state. At
the same time, some others believe that a
person, after his death, would evolve into
a spirit form for a certain number of days
before rebirth takes place. Another interpretation
regarding the same belief is that it is not
the spirit, but the deceased person's consciousness
or mental energy remaining in space, supported
by his own mental energies of craving and
attachment. However, sooner or later rebirth
must take place. The spirits (petas), who
are beings born in spirit forms, are unfortunate
living beings and their lives in the spirit
form is not permanent. It is also a form
of rebirth which is temporary.
Another concept that many people cannot understand
is that in the process of rebirth a man can
be reborn as an animal and an animal can
be reborn as a man. The animal nature of
the man's mind and the animal way of life
adopted by him can condition him to be born
as an animal. The condition and behavior
of the mind is responsible for the next existence.
On the other hand, a person who is born in
animal form, owing to certain mental abuses
during a previous birth, could be reborn
as a human being, if that animal has not
committed any serious evil acts. It is a
well-known fact that some animals are very
intelligent and understanding. This is a
clear evidence to prove that they are tending
towards the human life. A person who is born
as an animal can again be born as a human
being when the bad kamma which conditioned
his birth as an animal is expended and the
good kamma which was stored becomes dominant.
Dying Moment
In the dying man's consciousness, there are
three types of consciousness (Vinnana) functioning
at the moment of death :rebirth-linking consciousness
(patisandhi-citta), the current of passive
consciousness or the current of life-continuum
(bhavanga) and consciousness disconnecting
the present life (cuti-citta). At the last
moment of a man's present life the (patisandhi-citta)
or rebirth-linking consciousness arises,
having the three signs as its objects. The
patisandhi-citta remains in the course of
cognition for five faint thought-moments
Javana and then sinks down into bhavanga.
At the end of bhavanga the cuti-citta arises,
disconnecting the present life and sinks
down into bhavanga. At this very moment comes
the end of the present life. At the end of
that bhavanga another patisandhi-citta rises
up in the next life and from this very moment
the new life begins. This is the process
of death and rebirth according to Buddhism,
and only in Buddhism is the process of these
natural phenomena found explained in minute
detail.
A Buddhist faces death not as a crisis in
life but as a normal event, for he knows
that whoever is born must suffer, 'decay',
and ultimately die. Or, as someone so aptly
puts it, 'Everyone is born with the certificate
of death at his birth.' If we could all look
at death such an intelligent and rational
way, we would not cling to life so tenaciously.
'Ayamantima jatinatthidani punabbhavo"
This is my final birth and there is no more
rebirth for me.(Dhamma Cakka Sutta).
Nibbana
Nibbana is the highest bliss, a supramundane
state of eternal happiness. The happiness
of Nibbana cannot be experienced by indulging
the senses but calming them.
Nibbana is the final goal of Buddhism. What
is Nibbana then? It is not easy to know what
Nibbana really is; it is easier to know what
Nibbana is not.
Nibbana is not nothingness or extinction.
Would the Buddha leave his family and kingdom
and preach for 45 years, all for nothingness?
Nibbana is not a paradise. Several centuries
after the Buddha, some of the Buddhist sects
began to introduce Nibbana as a paradise.
Their purpose of equating Nibbana with a
heavenly world was to convince the less-intellectually-gifted
and to attract them to the teachings of the
sect. Striving for Nibbana came to mean looking
for a nice place where everything is beautiful
and where everyone is eternally happy. This
might be a very comfortable folktale, but
it is not the Nibbana that the Buddha experienced
and introduced. During His time the Buddha
did not deny the idea of paradise as it was
presented in the early Indian religions.
But the Buddha knew that this paradise was
within Samsara and the final liberation was
beyond it. The Buddha could see that the
Path to Nibbana led beyond the heavens.
If Nibbana is not a place, where is Nibbana
then? Nibbana exists just as fire exists.
However, there is no storage place for fire
or for Nibbana. But when you rub pieces of
wood together, then the friction and heat
are the proper conditions for fire to arise.
Likewise, when the nature in man's mind is
such that he is free from all defilements,
then Nibbanic bliss will appear.
You can experience Nibbana. Until you experience
the supreme state of Nibbanic bliss, you
can only speculate as to what it really is.
For those who insist on the theory, the texts
offer some help. The texts suggest that Nibbana
is a supra-mundane state of unalloyed happiness.
By itself, Nibbana is quite unexplainable
and quite undefinable. As darkness can be
explained only by its opposite, light, and
as calm can only be explained by its opposite,
motion, so likewise Nibbana, as a state equated
to the extinction of all suffering can be
explained by its opposite? the suffering
that is being endured in Samsara. As darkness
prevails wherever there is no light, as calm
prevails wherever there is no motion, so
likewise Nibbana is everywhere where suffering
and change and impurity do not prevail.
A sufferer who scratches his sores can experience
a temporary relief. This temporary relief
will aggravate the wounds and cause the disease
to be enhanced. The joy of the final cure
can hardly be compared to the fleeting relief
obtained from the scratching. Likewise, satisfying
the craving for sense-desires brings only
temporary gratification or happiness which
prolongs the stay in Samsara. The cure for
the samsaric disease is Nibbana. Nibbana
is an end of the cravings which cause all
the sufferings of birth, old age, disease,
death, grief, lamentation and despair. The
joy of Nibbanic cure can hardly be compared
to the temporary Samsaric pleasure gained
through fulfilling the sense desires.
It is dangerous to speculate on what Nibbana
is; it is better to know how to prepare the
conditions necessary for Nibbana, how to
attain the inner peace and clarity of vision
that leads to Nibbana. Follow the Buddha's
advice: put His Teachings into practice.
Get rid of all your defilements which are
rooted in greed, hatred, and delusion. Purify
yourself of all desires and realize absolute
selflessness. Lead a life of right moral
conduct and from all selfishness and illusion.
Then, Nibbana is gained and experienced.
Nibbana and Samsara
A well-known Mahayana Buddhist scholar, Nagarjuna,
says that Samsara and Nibbana are one. This
interpretation can easily be misunderstood
by others. However to state that the concept
of Samsara and Nibbana are the same is to
say that there is no difference in voidness
of component things and the unconditioned
state of Nibbana. In accordance with the
Pali Tipitaka, Samsara is described as the
unbroken continuation of the five aggregates,
four elements and twelve bases or sources
of mental processes whereas Nibbana is described
as the extinction of those relative physical
and mental sources.
However, it is admitted that those who gain
Nibbanic bliss, can experience it during
their existence in Samsara. In any case,
after their death, the link with those elements
will be eliminated, for the simple reason
that Nibbana is unconditioned, not relative
or interdependent. If there is to be anything
at all afterNibbana, it would have to be
'Absolute Truth'.
You must learn to be detached from all worldly
things. If there is any attachment to anyone
or to anything or if there is any aversion
to anyone or anything, you will never attain
Nibbana, for Nibbana is beyond all opposites
of attachment and aversion, likes and dislikes.
When that ultimate state is attained, you
will fully understand this worldly life for
which you now crave. This world will cease
to be an object of your desire. You will
realize the sorrow and impermanence and impersonality
of all that lives and that does not live.
By depending on teachers or holy books without
using your own effort in the right manner,
it is difficult to gain realization of Nibbana.
Your dreams will vanish. No castles will
be built in the air. The tempest will be
ended. Life's struggles will be over. Nature's
process will have ceased. All your worries,
miseries, responsibilities, disturbances,
burdens, physical and mental ailments and
emotions will vanish after attaining this
most blissful state of Nibbana.
To say that Nibbana is nothingness simply
because one cannot perceive it with the five
senses, is as illogical as to say that light
does not exist simply because the blind do
not see it.
Nibbana is attainable inthis present life.
Buddhism does not state that its ultimate
goal could be reached only in life beyond.
When Nibbana is realized in this life with
the body remaining it is called Sopadisesa
Nibbana. When an Arahant attains Pari Nibbana,
after the dissolution of the body, without
any reminder of physical existence, it is
called Anupadisesa Nibbana.
Law of Dependent Origination
"No God, no Brahma can be found
No matter of this wheel of life
Just bare phenomena roll
Depend on conditions all.(Visuddhi Magga)"
The Law of Dependent Origination is one of
the most important teachings of the Buddha,
and it is also very profound. The Buddha
has often expressed His experience of Enlightenment
in one of two ways, either in terms of having
understood the Four Noble Truths, or in terms
of having understood the nature of the dependent
origination. However, more people have heard
about the Four Noble Truths and can discuss
it than the Law of Dependent Origination,
which is just as important.
Although the actual insight into dependent
origination arises with spiritual maturity,
it is still possible for us to understand
the principle involved. The basis of dependent
origination is that life or the world is
built on a set of relations, in which the
arising and cessation of factors depend on
some other factors which condition them.
This principle can be given in a short formula
of four lines:
When this is, that is This arising, that
arises When this is not, that is not This
ceasing, that ceases.
On this principle of interdependence and
relativity rests the arising, continuity
and cessation of existence. This principle
is known as the Law of Dependent Origination
in Pali, Paticca-samuppada. This law emphasizes
an important principle that all phenomena
in this universe are relative, conditioned
states and do not arise independently of
supportive conditions. A phenomenon arises
because of a combination of conditions which
are present to support its arising. And the
phenomenon will cease when the conditions
and components supporting its arising change
and no longer sustain it. The presence of
these supportive conditions, in turn, depend
on other factors for their arising, sustenance
and disappearance.
The Law of Dependence Origination is a realistic
way of understanding the universe and is
the Buddhist equivalent of Einstein's Theory
of Relativity. The fact that everything is
nothing more than a set of relations is consistent
with the modern scientific view of the material
world. Since everything is conditioned, relative,
and interdependent, there is nothing in this
world which could be regarded as a permanent
entity, variously regarded as an ego or an
eternal soul, which many people believe in.
The phenomenal world is built on a set of
relations, but is this the way we would normally
understand the world to be? We create fictions
of its permanency in our minds because of
our desires. It is almost natural for human
beings to cling to what they consider as
beautiful or desirable, and to reject what
is ugly or undesirable. Being subjected to
the forces of greed and hatred, they are
misled by delusion, clouded by the illusion
of the permanency of the object they cling
to or reject. Therefore, it is hard for us
to realize that the world is like a bubble
or mirage, and is not the kind of reality
we believe it to be. We do not realize that
it is unreal in actuality. It is like a ball
of fire, which when whirled around rapidly,
can for a time, create the illusion of a
circle.
The fundamental principle at work in dependent
origination is that of cause and effect.
In dependent origination, what actually takes
place in the causal process is described
in detail. To illustrate the nature of dependent
origination of the things around us, let
us consider an oil lamp. The flame in an
oil lamp burns dependent upon the oil and
the wick. When the oil and the wick are present,
the flame in an oil lamp burns. If either
of these is absent, the flame will cease
to burn. This example illustrates the principle
of dependent origination with respect to
a flame in an oil lamp. Or in an example
of a plant, it is dependent upon the seed,
earth, moisture, air and sunlight for the
plant to grow. All these phenomena arise
dependent upon a number of causal factors,
and not independently. This is the principle
of dependent origination.
In the Dhamma, we are interested to know
how the principle of dependent origination
is applied to the problem of suffering and
rebirth. The issue is how dependent origination
can explain why we are still going round
in Samsara, or explain the problem of suffering
and how we can be free from suffering. It
is not meant to be a description of the origin
or evolution of the universe. Therefore,
one must not be mistaken into assuming that
ignorance, the first factor mentioned in
the dependent origination, is the first cause.
Since everything arises because of some preceding
causes, there can be no first cause.
According to the Law of Dependent Origination,
there are twelve factors which account for
the continuity of existence birth after birth.
The factors are as follows:
Through ignorance are conditioned volitional
actions or kamma-formations. Through volitional
actions is conditioned consciousness. Through
consciousness are conditioned mental and
physical phenomena. Through mental and physical
phenomena are conditioned the six faculties(i.
e., five physical sense-organs and mind).
Through the six faculties is conditioned
(sensorial and mental) contact. Through (sensorial
and mental)contact is conditioned sensation.
Through sensation is conditioned desire,
'thirst". Through desire ('thirst')
is conditioned clinging. Through clinging
is conditioned the process of becoming. Through
the process of becoming is conditioned birth.
through birth are conditioned decay, death,
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair.
This is how life arises, exists and continues,
and how suffering arises. These factors may
be understood as sequentially spanning over
a period of three life-times; the past life,
the present life, and the future life. In
the dependent origination, ignorance and
mental formation belong to the past life,
and represent the conditions that are responsible
for the occurrence of this life. The following
factors, namely, consciousness, mental and
physical phenomena, the six senses, contact,
sensation, desire, clinging and becoming,
are factors involved in the present life.
The last two factors, birth and decay and
death, belong to the future life.
In this law, the first factor of Ignorance
gives rise to Volitional Activities (or kamma).
Ignorance means not knowing or understanding
the true nature of our existence. Through
Ignorance, good or evil deeds are performed
which will lead a person to be reborn. Rebirth
can occur in various planes of existence:
the human world, the celestial or higher
planes, or even suffering planes depending
of the quality of a person's kamma. When
a person dies, his Volitional Activities
will condition the arising of Consciousness,
in this case to mean the re-linking Consciousness
which arises as the first spark of a new
life in the process of re-becoming.
Once the re-linking Consciousness has taken
place, life starts once again. Dependent
on the Consciousness, there arise Mind and
Matter, that is, a new'being' is born. Because
there are Mind and Matter, there arise the
six Sense-organs (the sixth sense is the
mind itself). With the arising of the Sense-organs,
there arises Contact. Contact with what?
Contact with sights, sounds, smells, tastes,
tactile objects, and mental objects.
These sights, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile
objects, and mental objects can be beautiful,
pleasing and enticing. On the other hand,
they can be ugly and distasteful. Therefore,
dependent on Contact arises Sensations: feelings
that are pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.
Because of these feelings, the laws of attraction
(greed)and repulsion (aversion) are now set
in motion. Beings are naturally attracted
to pleasant objects and repelled by unpleasant
objects. As a result of Sensation, Desire
arises. A person desires and thirsts for
forms that are beautiful and enticing; sounds
that are beautiful and enticing; tastes,
smells, touch, and objects which the mind
regards as beautiful and enticing. From these
Desires, he develops very strong Clinging
to the beautiful object (or strongly rejects
the repulsive object). Now because of this
Clinging and attachment, the next life is
conditioned and there arises Becoming. In
other words, the processes of Becoming are
set in motion by Clinging.
The next link in this chain of Dependent
Origination is that Becoming conditions the
arising of Birth. And finally, dependence
on Birth arise Decay and Death, followed
by Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and Despair.
The process can be ceased if the formula
is taken in the reverse order: Through the
complete cessation of ignorance(through the
cultivation of Insight), volitional activities
or kamma-formations cease; through the cessation
of volitional activities, consciousness ceases;
? through the cessation of birth, the other
factors of decay, death, sorrow, etc., cease.
Therefore, one can be free from the rounds
of rebirth through the eradication of ignorance.
To re-iterate what was mentioned earlier,
this doctrine of Dependent Origination merely
explains the processes of Birth and Death,
and is not a theory of the evolution of the
world. It deals with the Cause of re-birth
and Suffering, but in no way attempts to
show the absolute Origin of Life. Ignorance
in Dependent Origination is the ignorance
of the Four Noble Truths. It is very important
for us to understand the Four Noble Truths
because it is the ignorance of these Truths
that has trapped us all in the endless cycle
of birth and death.
According to the Buddha, while He was speaking
to Ananda: It is by their not being able
to comprehend the Dependent Origination,
that people are entangled like a ball of
cotton, and not being able to see the Truth,
are always afflicted by Sorrow, --born often
into conditions that are dismal and dreary,
where confusion and prolonged suffering prevail.
And, they do not know how to disentangle
themselves to get out.
Eternalism and Nihilism
The Buddha rejected both extremes of eternalism
and nihilism.
To develop Right View or Perfect View, we
must first be aware of two views which are
considered imperfect or wrong.
The first view is eternalism. This doctrine
or belief is concerned with eternal life
or with eternal things. Before the Buddha's
time, it was taught that there is an abiding
entity which could exist forever, and that
man can live the eternal life by preserving
the eternal soul in order to be in union
with Supreme Being. In Buddhism, this teaching
is called sassata ditthi ----the view of
eternalists. Such views still exist even
in the modern world owing to man's craving
for eternity.
Why did the Buddha deny the teaching of eternalism?
Because when we understand the things of
this world as they truly are, we cannot find
anything which is permanent or which exists
forever. Things change and continue to do
so according to the changing conditions on
which they depend. When we analyse things
into their elements or into reality, we cannot
find any abiding entity, any everlasting
thing. This is why the eternalist view is
considered wrong or false.
The second false view is nihilism or the
view held by the nihilists who claim that
there is no life after death. This view belongs
to a materialistic philosophy which refuses
to accept knowledge of mental conditionality.
To subscribe to a philosophy of materialism
is to understand life only partially. Nihilism
ignores the side of life which is concerned
with mental conditionality. If one claims
that after the passing away or ceasing of
a life, it does not come to be again, the
continuity of mental conditions is denied.
To understand life, we must consider all
conditions, both mental and material. When
we understand mental and material conditions,
we cannot say that there is no life after
death and that there is no further becoming
after passing away. This nihilist view of
existence is considered false because it
is based on incomplete understanding of reality.
That is why nihilism was also rejected by
the Buddha. The teaching of kamma is enough
to prove that the Buddha did not teach annihilation
after death; Buddhism accepts 'survival'
not in the sense of an eternal soul, but
in the sense of a renewed becoming.
Throughout the Buddha's long period of teaching
the Dhamma to His followers, He actively
discouraged speculative arguments. During
the 5th century B. C. India was a veritable
hive of intellectual activity where scholars,
yogis, philosophers, kings and even ordinary
householders were constantly engaged in the
philosophical arguments pertaining to human
existence. Some of these were either ridiculously
trivial or totally irrelevant. Some people
wasted valuable time arguing at great length
about all manner of subjects. They were far
more concerned about proving their powers
in mental gymnastics than seeking genuine
solutions to the problems that beset humanity.
(In the 18th century Jonathan Swift satirized
a similar pastime in England when he showed
the Lilliputians in 'Gulliver's Travels'
waging a war to decide whether an egg should
be broken on its sharp end or its broad end).
The Buddha also refused to get involved in
speculations regarding the universe. He stated
very clearly that the problem facing mankind
is not in his past or his future but in the
immediate present. Knowledge about Eternalism
or Nihilism can in no way help man to break
the present fetters which bind him to existence
and which are the source of all his feelings
of discontent which arise from his inability
to completely satisfy his cravings. The Buddha
stated that before one can begin to tread
the path which leads to Nibbana one must
have Right View. Only when one knows clearly
what one is seeking will one be able to attain
it.
Can the First Cause be Known?
It is rather difficult for us to understand
how the world came into existence without
a first cause. But it is very much more difficult
to understand how that first cause came into
existence at the beginning.
According to the Buddha, it is inconceivable
to find a first cause for life or anything
else. For in common experience, the cause
becomes the effect and the effect becomes
the cause. In the circle of cause and effect,
a first cause is incomprehensible. With regard
to the origin of life, the Buddha declares,
'Without cognizable end is this recurrent
wandering in Samsara(cycle of birth and death).
Beings are obstructed by ignorance and fettered
by craving. A first beginning of these beings
is not to be perceived.
(Anamatagga Samyutta in Samyutta Nikaya).
This life-steam flows on ad infinitum, as
long as it is fed by the muddy waters of
ignorance and craving. When these two are
cut off, only then does the life-steam cease
to flow, only then does rebirth come to an
end.
It is difficult to conceive an end of space.
It is difficult to conceive an eternal duration
of what we call time. But it is more difficult
for us to understand how this world came
into existence with a first cause. And it
is more difficult to understand how that
first cause came into existence at the beginning.
For if the first cause can exist though uncreated,
there is no reason why the other phenomena
of the universe must not exist without having
also been created.
As to the question how all beings came into
existence without a first cause, the Buddhist's
reply is that there is no answer because
the question itself is merely a product of
man's limited comprehension. If we can understand
the nature of time and relativity, we must
see that there could not have been any beginning.
It can only be pointed out that all the usual
answers to the question are fundamentally
defective. If it is assumed that for a thing
to exist, it must have had a creator who
existed before it, it follows logically that
the creator himself must have had a creator,
and so on back to infinity. On the other
hand, if the creator could exist without
a prior cause in the form of another creator,
the whole argument falls to the ground. The
theory of a creator does not solve any problems,
it only complicates the existing ones.
Thus Buddhism does not pay much attention
to theories and beliefs about the origin
of the world. Whether the world was created
by a god or it came into existence by itself
makes little difference to Buddhist. Whether
the world is finite or infinite also makes
little difference to Buddhists. Instead of
following this line of theoretical speculations,
the Buddha advises people to work hard to
find their own salvation.
Scientists have discovered many causes which
are responsible for the existence of life,
plants, planets, elements and other energies.
But it is impossible for anyone to find out
any particular first cause for their existence.
If they go on searching for the first cause
of any existing life or thing, they point
certain causes as the main cause but that
never becomes the first cause. In the process
of searching for the first cause one after
the other, they will come back to the place
where they were. This is because, cause becomes
the effect and the next moment that effect
becomes the cause to produce another effect.
That is what the Buddha say, 'It is incomprehensible
and the universe is beginningless.'
Is there an Eternal Soul?
Belief in an eternal soul is a misconception
of the human consciousness.
Soul-Theories
With regard to the soul theory, there are
three kinds of teachers in the world:
The first teacher teaches the existence of
an eternal ego-entity that outlasts death:
He is the eternalist.
The second teacher teaches a temporary ego-entity
which becomes annihilated at death: He is
the materialist.
The third teacher teaches neither an eternal
nor a temporary ego-entity: He is the Buddha.
The Buddha teaches that what we call ego,
self, soul, personality, etc., are merely
conventional terms that do not refer to any
real, independent entity. According to Buddhism
there is no reason to believe that there
is an eternal soul that comes from heaven
or that is created by itself and that will
transmigrate or proceed straight away either
to heaven or hell after death. Buddhists
cannot accept that there is anything either
in this world or any other world that is
eternal or unchangeable. We only cling to
ourselves and hope to find something immortal.
We are like children who wish to clasp a
rainbow. To children, a rainbow is something
vivid and real; but the grown-ups know that
it is merely an illusion caused by certain
rays of light and drops of water. The light
is only a series of waves or undulations
that have no more reality than the rainbow
itself.
Man has done well without discovering the
soul. He shows no signs of fatigue or degeneration
for not having encountered any soul. No man
has produced anything to promote mankind
by postulating a soul and its imaginary working.
Searching for a soul in man is like searching
for something in a dark empty room. But the
poor man will never realize that what he
is searching for is not in the room. It is
very difficult to make such a person understand
the futility of his search.
Those who believe in the existence of a soul
are not in a position to explain what and
where it is. The Buddha's advice is not to
waste our time over this unnecessary speculation
and devote our time to strive for our salvation.
When we have attained perfection then we
will be able to realize whether there is
a soul or not. A wandering ascetic named
Vacchagotta asked the Buddha whether there
was an Atman (self) or not. The story is
as follows:
Vacchagotta comes to the Buddha and asks:
'Venerable Gotama, is there an Atman ? The
Buddha is silent. 'Then Venerable Gotama,
is there no Atman? Again the Buddha is silent.
Vacchagotta gets up and goes away. After
the ascetic has left, Ananda asks the Buddha
why He did not answer Vacchagotta's question.
The Buddha explains His position:
'Ananda, when asked by Vacchagotta, the Wanderer:
'Is there a Self?, if I had answered: 'There
is a Self'. Then, Ananda, that would be siding
with those recluses and brahmanas who hold
the eternalist theory (sassata-vada).'
'And Ananda, when asked by the Wanderer:
'Is there no Self?, if I had answered: 'There
is no Self', then that would be siding with
those recluses and brahmanas who hold the
annihilationist theory( uccedavada)'.
'Again, Ananda, when asked by Vacchagotta:
'Is there a Self? If I had answered: 'There
is a Self', would that be in accordance with
my knowledge that all dhammas are without
Self?
'Surely not, Sir.'
'And again, Ananda, when asked by the Wanderer:
'Is there no Self?', if I had answered: 'There
is no Self', then that would have created
a greater confusion in the already confused
Vacchagotta. For he would have thought: Formerly
indeed I had an Atman(Self), but now I haven't
got one.' (Samyutta Nikaya).
The Buddha regarded soul-speculation as useless
and illusory. He once said, 'Only through
ignorance and delusion do men indulge in
the dream that their souls are separate and
self-existing entities. Their heart still
clings to Self. They are anxious about heaven
and they seek the pleasure of Self in heaven.
Thus they cannot see the bliss of righteousness
and the immortality of truth.' Selfish ideas
appear in man's mind due to his conception
of Self and craving for existence.
Anatta: The Teaching of No-Soul
The Buddha countered all soul-theory and
soul-speculation with His Anatta doctrine.
Anatta is translated under various labels:
No-soul, No-self, egolessness, and soullessness.
To understand the Anatta doctrine, one must
understand that the eternal soul theory _
'I have a soul' _ and the material theory
_ 'I have no soul' _are both obstacles to
self-realization or salvation. They arise
from the misconception 'I AM'. Hence, to
understand the Anatta doctrine, one must
not cling to any opinion or views on soul-theory;
rather, one must try to see things objectively
as they are and without any mental projections.
One must learn to see the so-called 'I' or
Sour or Self for what it really is : merely
a combination of changing forces. This requires
some analytical explanation.
The Buddha taught that what we conceive as
something eternal within us, is merely a
combination of physical and mental aggregates
or forces (pancakkhandha), made up of body
or matter (rupakkhandha), sensation (vedanakkhandha),
perception (sannakkhandha), mental formations
(samkharakkhandha) and consciousness
(vinnanakkhandha). These forces are working
together in a flux of momentary change; they
are never the same for two consecutive moments.
They are the component forces of the psycho-physical
life. When the Buddha analyzed the psycho-physical
life, He found only these five aggregates
or forces. He did not find any eternal soul.
However, many people still have the misconception
that the soul is the consciousness. The Buddha
declared in unequivocal terms that consciousness
depends on matter, sensation, perception
and mental formations and that is cannot
exist independently of them.
The Buddha said, 'The body, O monks, is not
the Self. Sensation is not the Self. Perception
is not the Self. The mental constructions
are not the Self. And neither is consciousness
the Self. Perceiving this, O monks, the disciple
sets no value on the body, or on sensation,
or on perception, or on mental constructions,
or on consciousness. Setting no value of
them, he becomes free of passions and he
is liberated. The knowledge of liberation
arises there within him. And then he knows
that he has done what has to be done, that
he has lived the holy life, that he is no
longer becoming this or that, that his rebirth
is destroyed.' (Anatta-Lakkhana Sutta).
The Anatta doctrine of the Buddha is over
2500 years old. Today the thought current
of the modern scientific world is flowing
towards the Buddha's Teaching of Anatta or
No-Soul. In the eyes of the modern scientists,
man is merely a bundle of ever-changing sensations.
Modern physicists say that the apparently
solid universe is not, in reality, composed
of solid substance at all, but actually a
flux of energy. The modern physicist sees
the whole universe as a process of transformation
of various forces of which man is a mere
part. The Buddha was the first to realize
this.
A prominent author, W. S. Wily, once said,
'The existence of the immortal in man is
becoming increasingly discredited under the
influence of the dominant schools of modern
thought.' The belief in the immortality of
the soul is a dogma that is contradicted
by the most solid, empirical truth.
The mere belief in an immortal soul, or the
conviction that something in us survives
death, does not make us immortal unless we
know what it is that survives and that we
are capable of identifying ourselves with
it. Most human beings choose death instead
of immortality by identifying themselves
with that which is perishable and impermanent
by clinging stubbornly to the body or the
momentary elements of the present personality,
which they mistake for the soul or the essential
form of life.
About those researches of modern scientists
who are now more inclined to assert that
the so-called 'Soul' is no more than a bundle
of sensations, emotions, sentiments, all
relating to the physical experiences, Prof.
James says that the term 'Soul' is a mere
figure of speech to which no reality corresponds.
It is the same Anatta doctrine of the Buddha
that was introduced in the Mahayana school
of Buddhism as Sunyata or voidness. Although
this concept was elaborated by a great Mahayana
scholar, Nagarjuna, by giving various interpretations,
there is no extraordinary concept in Sunyata
far different from the Buddha's original
doctrine of Anatta.
The belief in soul or Self and the Creator
God, is so strongly rooted in the minds of
many people that they cannot imagine why
the Buddha did not accept these two issues
which are indispensable to many religions.
In fact some people got a shock or became
nervous and tried to show their emotion when
they heard that the Buddha rejected these
two concepts. That is the main reason why
to many unbiased scholars and psychologists
Buddhism stands unique when compared to all
the other religions. At the same time, some
other scholars who appreciate the various
other aspects of Buddhism thought that Buddhism
would be enriched by deliberately re-interpreting
the Buddha word 'Atta' in order to introduce
the concept of Soul and Self into Buddhism.
The Buddha was aware of this unsatisfactoriness
of man and the conceptual upheaval regarding
this belief.
All conditioned things are impermanent, All
conditioned things are Dukka? Suffering,
All conditioned or unconditioned things are
soulless or selfless. (Dhammapada 277, 278,
279) There is a parable in our Buddhist texts
with regard to the belief in an eternal soul.
A man, who mistook a moving rope for a snake,
became terrified by that fear in his mind.
Upon discovery that it was only a piece of
rope, his fear subsided and his mind became
peaceful. The belief in an eternal soul is
equated to the rope? man's imagination.
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